Hildebrand
Introduction
Most often when
the word Reformation is spelled it remains us of the reformed churches and the
part played by Luther and others in the history of the church. The medieval
period testifies a period of reform within the church. Church holds lot of
ecclesiastical ceremonies and moreover it was in the hands of Emperor. There
are frequent conflicts between Pope and Emperor, the involvement of Emperor in
Church is through lay investiture which led the church to follow simony and
acceptance of Clerical Concubinage. So to eliminate the Church from such errors
it should be made free from the Emperor, and attempt was taken by reform
movement under Gregory VII, also succeeded by his followers which resulted in an
end to lay investiture at Worms. This paper will bring out the early life of Gregory,
background in which he was made as Pope, the reformation, his successors and
the Concordat of worms which put an end to lay investiture.
1.
Hildebrand
1.1.Brief
sketch of his life
Hildebrand was
born at Tuscany in the year 1020 in a poor family, went to Rome at an early age
and began his education at the monastery of St. Mary, where his uncle was an
abbot.[1] He
was very young when he[2] became
a monk but continued his studies at the Schola cantorum (School of Musicians).[3] He
was charged as a sub deacon with final administration, accompanied Leo IX and
had close association with cardinalate and is one of the most remarkable personalities
in medieval papal history. A man of diminutive stature and unimpressive appearance,
his power of intellect, firmness of will and limitlessness of design made him
the outstanding figure of his age. He was inspired with the radical of
reformatory ideals,[4]
and played large part in the reform efforts of his predecessors with great
energy and talents to this difficult work.[5]
He was a practical
minded man who often acted as moderation,[6] became
mentor of several Popes,[7] and
was named as ecclesiastical Napoleon of the middle ages.[8] His
physical and mental qualities were unexceptional, moderately learned but had
the fiery temperament of an Old Testament prophet and drew men to him by the
vigor of his imagination, the bright keenness of eyes and his tremendous
passion for righteousness.[9] He
claimed absolute power of the church. He was sincere to his desire to purify
the church and to free it from a corrupting dependence on the state, but he was
careful in the choice of means by which he might carry out his purposes. There
was a mixture of craft, of hardness and of pride in his temper and actions.[10]
1.2.Reasons
for reform
·
The
gradual rise and growth of the papacy took place through the Bishopric of Rome.
·
The
papacy was brought into bondage to the state and utterly corrupted.
·
As
a result of the low spiritual condition in the church there took place a
religious revival which began in the monastery Cluny.[11]
1.3.Reformation
Movement:
Giovanni,
Graziano a classmate of Hildebrand became Pope Gregory VI (1045-1046) took Hildebrand
into his service and went with him in exile to Germany when Emperor Henry III
(1017-1056) deposed Gregory VI at the council of Sutri in 1046. Hildebrand
found favor with the king and was called back to Rome by Pope Leo IX
(1049-1054). He formed the group of reformers to exert a profound influence on
the eleventh century church. He became the “man behind the throne” during the
pontificate of his immediate predecessor, Pope Alexander II (1061-1073) having
been already an important member of the Roman reform group.[12]
1.4.Three
objectives of reform Movement
·
The
removal of Simony and lay interference in church matters
·
To
repress the immorality of the clergy
·
To
bind all the elements of papacy into such a system as to realize the supremacy
to which it aspired.[13]
2.Conflict
between Emperor and reform leaders, and the Rise of Hildebrand as Pope
Henry III[14]
dominance displeased the radical reformers he was controlled by the German
church and the papacy and not hearing reform movement. On Victor II’s death the
Romans led by reform clergy chose Frederick of Lorraine, by name Stephen IX[15]
(1057-1058) as Pope without consulting the German regent. With the knowledge of
Stephen, Cardinal Humbert issued ‘Three Books Against the Simoniacs’ to
reformed party in which he declared all lay appointment were invalid and
attacked lay investiture[16] which
undermine the foundations of the imperial power in Germany. This caused
struggle between Pope and the king, So Hildebrand and Bishop Anslem of Lucca,
secured the approval of the Empress Agnes[17]
for his papacy. Meanwhile Stephen died at Florence provoked a crisis. The Roman
nobles reasserted their old authority over the papacy and chose their own
partisan Benedict X. The reform cardinals had to flee and seemed the moment
lost.[18]
This situation
was saved by the firmness and political skill of Hildebrand and gathered the
reform cardinals in Siena and Gerhard bishop of Florence was elected as Pope
Nicholas II (1058-1061. The military aid of Godfrey of Tuscany soon made the
new Pope Master of Rome. Nicholas was guided by Hilderbrand, Cardinals Humbert
and Peter damiani.
Under Skillful guidance
of Hildebrand, Nicholas II entered into cordial relations with Normans[19]
intimate connections were established, the anti reform party and imperialistic
higher clergy opposed this. With this new alliance Nicholas II at the Roman
Synod of 1059 expressly forbade lay investiture. This synod regulated choice to
the Papacy with modification it governs the selection of Popes to this day. The
evident purpose was to put the election into the hands of the cardinals,
primarily of the cardinal bishops. Further Pope may come from anywhere in the
church, and elections could be done elsewhere than in Rome in case of
necessity. This revolution in the method of choice of the pope would give to
the office an independence political control. In 1061 Nicholas II and Cardinal
Humbert died. Hildebrand becomes the ruling force in the reform party. Anslem
Bishop of Lucca as Alexander II a friend of Hildebrand was elected as Pope.
The German
bishops were hostile to the new method, Lombards prelates dislike the papal
support of the Pataria, and the Roman nobles resented their loss of control
over the papacy. These hostile elements united to meet at a German assembly
held in Basel in1061 appointed Pope of Cadalus, bishop of Parma, undertook the
name of Honorius II. This led to revolution in Germany, but Hildebrand’s bold
policy triumphed over a divided Germany.
Alexander II
with Hildebrand’s guidance advanced the Papal authority markedly. He prevented
Henry IV from securing a divorce from Queen Bertha. There were continuous disputes
between state and Pope, leaving the disputes to the successor Alexander II
died.
2.1.Election
of Hildebrand as Pope
Hildebrand’s
election came in curious disregard of the new constitution established under
Nicholas II. During the funeral of Alexander II on April 22 A.D 1073 in St. John
Lateran, the crowd acclaimed Hildebrand as Pope, and carried him almost in
riot, to the church of St. Peter in Chains, where he was enthroned and took the
name Gregory VII (1073-1085) with the help of [20] faithful
and able servant of five popes.[21] In
his accession the extremist interpretation of the principles of Augustine’s
City of God had reached the Papal throne.[22] Hildebrand
filled high responsible positions in Rome knew the difficulties to govern the
church has became an upright and conscientious Pope. The last decree on Papal
election contained the Pope-elect should receive the approval of the Emperor of
Germany. And since he did not receive approval he holds the title of
“Bishop-elect of Rome”.[23]
Henry IV sent
Elberhard of Nellenburg to Rome to protest against the proceedings of the
election of Hildebrand. He said, “Been elected by the people, but against my
own will. I would not however allow myself to be forced to take priests orders
until my election should have been ratified by the king and the princes of
Germany.” Lambert of Hersfeld informs Henry was so pleased with this manner of speech
and allowed the consecration ceremony to proceed on the Feast of purification
in the year 1074.
2.2.Hildebrand’s
Pontificate
Seated on the
Pontifical throne Gregory preceded with greater vigor than ever he had before,
against bishops and abbots who obtained their appointments uncanonically from
temporal princes and against simonists and immoral ecclesiastics. He set
himself to reform the abuses and scandals of the church. In a letter he writes
as such, “Besought God either to take me out of this world or to make me useful
to our common mother, the church; whom I so dearly love.”[24] His
key note was reform and renewal of the church.[25]
He viewed Papacy
as a divinely appointed universal sovereignty, which all must obey, and to
which all earthly sovereigns are responsible, not only for their spiritual
welfare, but for their temporal good government.[26] In
the annual Lenten synod held in the Lateran (1075) he forbade lay investiture,[27]
denying to Henry any share in creating bishops[28]
and excommunicated five imperial counselors who continued to practices simony.
Further to impress his authority, he published his ideas on the relations of
church and state in a short document known as the Dictatus papae[29]
or Dictatus Gregorii[30] where the teachings of St. Augustine, St.
Gregory the Great and Pope Nicholas II were brought together.[31] The
famous Dictatus holds the principles of Hildebrand’s: “That the Roman Church was founded by God
alone,” “That the Roman pontiff alone can with right be called universal,” “That
he alone may use the imperial insignia,” “That it may be permitted him to
depose Emperors,” “That he himself may be judged of no one.”
3.Henry
IV and Hildebrand
The opening
years of Hildebrand pontificate were favorable for the papacy.[32] But
Henry IV paid no attention to the Pope’s measure for reform; He kept the
excommunicated counselors and continued to nominate bishops and to practice
simony.[33] Henry’s
fortune changed when he defeated Saxon in June 1075 and became master of
Germany appointed archbishopric of Milan. Hildebrand wrote a letter in December
1075 condemned it severely. On January 24, 1076 Henry convened a council at
Worms and charged personal charges against Hildebrand[34]
where 26 bishops declared the Pope deposed. There arose an open conflict which
ultimately ruined him. The church and lesser political rulers sided with Pope.
Gregory freed the Germans from obedience to Emperor by excommunication and the
disobedient bishops.[35]
Hildebrand’s
reply was the most famous of medieval papal decrees. At the Roman synod of
February 22, 1076, he excommunicated Henry IV and forbade authority over
Germany and Italy, released all subjects from their oaths of allegiance. It was
the boldest assertion of Papal authority that had ever been made. In reply
Henry IV wrote as “Now no Pope, but a false monk,” he called Hildebrand to
“Come down, to be damned throughout all eternity.” Henry did not get succeed
because Germany was not united and His political enemies used the opportunity
to trouble him. There was opposition from Popes and Henry was unable to meet
the rising opposition.[36]
The German
princess threatened to abandon the king if he remains the state of
excommunication for more than a year.[37] An
assembly of nobles in Tribur, in October 1076 declared unless released from
excommunication within a year he would be deposed, and the Pope was invited to
a new assembly to meet in Augsburg on February 1077 at which the whole
political and religious situation should be considered. Henry was in danger of
losing his throne. It became a matter of vital importance to free from
excommunication. Henry resolved to meet Hildebrand before the Pope could reach
the assembly. He crossed the Alps in the winter and sought Hildebrand on his
way to Germany. Hildebrand sought refuge in the strong castle of Canossa.[38]
Henry went there
barefooted as a penitent and presented himself and Popes companions pleaded for
him.[39] Hildebrand
refused all appeals and decided to settle the questions at Augsburg. Hildebrand
was in dilemma whether to forgive king or he would seen acting very cruelly.
Forgiving him also leads to the emergence of princes’ German power. At last
Pope forgave Henry IV as a private Christian but not giving him kingdom.[40] It
was a political triumph which made his German opponents in confusion. He had
prevented a successful assembly in Augsburg under papal leadership. The pope’s
plans had been disappointed.[41]
3.1.A
counter king, the decline of reform party and the death of Hildebrand
The princes too
refused to give back the kingdom and declared Rudolf duke of Swabia as new
king. Rudolf promised to abolish lay investiture and be obedient to Pope.[42]
The appointment led to civil war ensued and in March 1080 Henry was
excommunicated second time and Pope’s action has little effect. Henry answered
by a synod in Brixen in June 1080 deposing Hildebrand and choosing archbishop
Wibert of Ravenna as Pope and named as Clement III (1080-1100) a bitter
opponent of Hildebrand. Clement III died in battle and Hildebrand’s supporter’s
were weak and beaten refused any compromise, In May 1084 a Norman army came
into Hildebrand’s relief burned and plundered Rome made Hildebrand to live in exile
after one year he died at Salerno on May 25, 1085.[43]
4.Reform
of Clergy
Hildebrand first
directed his efforts towards the reform of the clergy by taking some severe
measure against simony[44]
and clerical concubinage[45].
These vices were inseperably bound up with the practice of lay investiture. It
also deprived the necessary freedom for an effective drive towards reform. He
put a task to reform: a conflict with the temporal powers of Europe became
inevitable, because the eradication of lay investiture meant an effort to free
episcopate from the civil authorities. So the whole movement for reform in the
church concentrated on and almost reduced to this question of lay investiture.[46]
He considered
reform as a means of restoring and preserving among the clergy the moral purity
of life which their state demanded. In this way they can be detached from world
and worldly affairs as to devote themselves wholly to the services of the
church or be completely independent from state. He made the people in a measure
the executors of his will.
The measure was
so violent to strengthen religiously minded men, pure and more intelligent
priesthood, and less worldly priest. To yield obedience to the laws of the
church and to strengthen the authority of Pope.[47] The
leading idea of Gregory’s life was the establishment of a Universal Monarchy
with the Pope as its head and the princess and kings of the earth doing homage
and services as his vassal.
He was the
representative of a new theory of church and state. He believed that to him had
been committed the care of the kingdom of Christ and that to defy his authority
was to resist God. [48] Gregory
expresses the necessity of the harmonious action of the spiritual and temporal
powers. Hefele gives Gregory’s policy as; the Pope alone can save the world
from the sinking world. He designed the universal theocracy, every kingdom
should embrace Christendom and Decalogue as the fundamental principle.[49]
5.Successors
of Hildebrand
5.1.Desiderius
The faithful
cardinals of Hildebrand selected Desiderius who took the name Victor III
(1086-1087) the able scholarly abbot of Monte Cassino. With hesitation he took
the charge he quietly dropped Hildebrand’s extreme efforts on the prohibition
of lay investiture with vigor. He remained in Rome and in 1087 Victor III was
no more.
5.2.Odo
of Lagary
Few reform
cardinals met in Terracina and chose French Cluny monk Odo of Lagary as Pope
Urban II (1088-1099) he was appointed by Hildebrand as a cardinal bishop. He
had a friendly party of German clergy and through unworthy means faced
disaffection of Henry IV, but in 1093 he drives out Wibert.[50] In
March 1095 at Piacenza a great synod was convened and sounded for crusade. And at
Clermont in November the crusade was brought and through it he rose to a
position of European leadership in spite of the opposition of Henry IV. The
Papacy had achieved a popular significance compared with which they had nothing
to offer.
5.3.Paschal
II
(1099-1118)
He made matters
worse rather than better. Meanwhile Henry V[51] attains
the power through rebellion. Paschal II was powerless and without the courage
of Hildebrand. Now Henry V and Pope agreed (1111) that the king should resign
his right of investiture, provided the bishops of Germany should relinquish to
him all temporal lordships. This would be a revolution that would reduce the
German church to poverty and there were protest in Rome in February 1111. Henry
V took the Pope and cardinals’ prisoners which led Paschal weakened. In April
1111 he resigned to Henry investiture with ring and staff and crowned him
Emperor. The Hildebrandian party protested and at Roman synod march 1112
Paschal with drew his agreement, which was taken by force. A following synod at
Vienne in September excommunicated Henry V and forbade lay investiture and this
action was approved by Pope.
6.Concordat
of worms 1122
The meeting was
arranged by Henry V and Pope Calixtus II (1119-1124) and by agreement few
decisions were taken; elections of bishops and abbots in Germany were free and
in canonical form, yet the presence of the Emperor at the choice was allowed
and in case of disputed election he should consult with the Metropolitan and
other bishops. In other parts of empire no mention was made of imperial
presence (Burgundy and Italy). The emperor renounced investiture with ring and
staff i.e. the symbols of spiritual authority. The Pope granted the right of
investiture by the touch of royal scepter. The imperial recognition was to take
place in Germany before consecration and in other parts within six months. In
Germany a bishop and abbot must be acceptable both to church and to the
emperor. In Italy the imperial power rested on control of church appointments
was greatly broken. It was an outcome of the struggle which would partially
have satisfied Hildebrand. Yet the church had won much. If not superior to the
state it had vindicated its equality with the temporal power.[52]
7.Reformation
in other nations
7.1.France: Philip I of
France engaged in simoniacal traffic of ecclesiastical benefices. Gregory
threatened to withdraw Phillip’s subjects from his allegiance, but did not excommunicate
him. Disobedient bishops and archbishops were deposed and excommunicated.
Gradually a turn took place in France.
7.2.England: Gregory
condemned the lay control of William the Conqueror and fights against the vices
of simony and clerical concubinage.
7.3.Spain: Less attention
was made to it in reference to reform. The clunic monk had earlier set a
movement to reform afoot there. Gregory was remembered for abolishing Mozarabic
rite[53],
and for his efforts in bringing all the church into closer union with Romans. Also
Christians were freed from Saracen yoke[54]
in Spain and in East.[55]
8.Impact
of Reformation
8.1.Positively
·
Lay
investiture which was the root cause of all immoral activities in Church was
put to an end.
·
Reformation
spread to other countries and eradicated the errors and evils in Church.
·
Mozarabic
rite was abolished and people were freed from Saracen yoke.
·
The
immoral clergies, Bishops, and Cardinals were excommunicated.
·
Simony
and Clerical Concubinage were abolished.
·
Papacy
and Popes got authority
·
State
is for temporal authority and it should stand for the protection of Church.
8.2.Negatively
·
Moral
standards of Pope began to decline.
·
It
indirectly paved way for Crusades.
·
Wars
between Emperor and Pope led to destruction of many lives.
·
It
does not help to unite the Eastern Church i.e. schism 1054.
·
Reformers
did not follow the ideals of reform movement in electing Popes.
·
More
precisely concentrated on Clergies but not in other errors of Church.
·
The
nationalistic feeling causes the emergence of reform movement.
·
Selfish
motives can be seen on Popes and Emperors action.
Conclusion
The medieval
period gives a picture of reformation which happened within the church. It took
place in regard to purify the clergy who were practicing simony and clerical
concubinage. These were the outcome of lay investiture practiced in Church. So
the reformers sought a way to put an end to lay investiture, even though it was
not attained by Hildebrand but his intention of purification and the measure
helped his successors to accomplish it. Henry V was a crucial person to bring
the dispute to an end. There were positive and negative impacts of reformation;
on the whole Church is the prime benefactor of this act.
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A
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G.P. History
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[1] The New Encyclopedia Vol V 15th Edition (USA:
Encyclopedia Britannica. Inc, 1768), 479.
[2] Williston
Walker, A History of the Christian Church,
(New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1952), 224.
[3] The New Encyclopedia…, 479.
[4] Williston, A History of the Christian Church…, 223.
[5] O. Christopher
Mahony, Church History Vol I,
(Alwaye: Pontifical Institute, 1974), 276.
[6] Lawerence. T. Lorimer, Mark
Cummings, Kenneth W. Leish (Eds), The
Encyclopedia Americana’s Vol.13,
(USA: Grolier incorporated, 1829), 471.
[7] Micheal Glazer, Monika K. Hellwig
(Eds), The Modern Catholic Encyclopedia,
(Bangalore: Claritan Publications, 1982), 359.
[8] B.K. Kuiper, The Church in History, (Michigan: Wm. B.
Eerdmans Publication, 1978), 118.
[9]
Thomas Bokenkotter, A Concise History of Catholic
Church, (New York: Image Books, 1979), 125.
[10] G.P. Fisher, History of the Church, (New Haven, 1887), 183.
[11] B.K. Kuiper, The Church in History…, 96.
[12] The New Encyclopeadia …, 479.
[13] James C.
Moffat, Church History in Brief,
(Philadelphia: Presbyterian Board Publication, 1885), 178.
[14] Henry III, German king (from 1039), and
Holy Roman emperor (1046–56), a member of the Salian dynasty,
son of the emperor Conrad II, Gisela of Swabia. The
last emperor able to dominate the papacy, he was a
powerful advocate of the Cluniac reform movement that sought to purify the
Western church.
[15] Stephen was the brother of duke
Godfrey of Lorraine, an enemy of the German imperial house.
[16] The gift by the Emperor of a
ring and a staff to the elected bishop in token of his induction into office
[17] Wife of Henry III
[18] Williston, A History of the Christian Church…, 225.
[19] They trouble Leo IX
[20] Williston, A History of the Christian Church…,226- 228.
[21] Christopher, Church History Vol I.., 276.
[22] Williston, A History of the Christian Church …, 228.
[23] John Alzog, Manuel of Universal Church History Vol II
(New Delhi: Christian World Imprints, 2014), 347.
[24] John, Manuel of Universal Church History Vol II…, 348.
[25] The New Encyclopeadia …, 479.
[26] Williston, A History of the Christian Church…, 229.
[27] Christopher, Church History Vol I…, 277.
[28] Williston, A History of the Christian Church…, 229.
[29] Christopher, Church History Vol I…, 277.
[30] James, Church History in Brief…, 179.
[31] Christopher, Church History Vol I…, 277.
[32] Williston, A History of the Christian Church…,
229.
[33] Christopher, Church History Vol I…, 277.
[34] Williston, A History of the Christian Church…, 229.
[35] Christopher, Church History Vol I…, 277.
[36] Williston, A History of the Christian Church…, 230.
[37] Christopher, Church History Vol I…, 277.
[38] Williston, A History of the Christian Church…, 230.
[39] Williston, A History of the Christian Church…, 239.
[40] Christopher, Church History Vol I…, 279
[41] Williston, A History of the Christian Church…, 239.
[42] Christopher, Church History Vol I…, 279.
[43] Williston, A History of the Christian Church…,
231.
[44] Simony is usually defined “a deliberate intention of buying or selling for a temporal
price such things as are spiritual or
annexed unto spirituals”.
[45] the priests’ wives as concubines, and do all in their power
to reduce them to this position.
[46] Christopher, Church History Vol I…, 276.
[47] John, Manuel of Universal Church History Vol II…, 349-350.
[48] Fisher, History of the Church…, 182.
[49]John, Manuel of Universal Church History Vol II…, 352.
[50] Williston, A History of the Christian Church…, 232.
[51] Henry
V was King of Germany and Holy Roman Emperor, the fourth and last ruler of the
Salian dynasty. Henry's reign coincided with the final phase of the great
Investiture Controversy, which had pitted pope against emperor
[52] Williston, A History of the Christian Church…, 233- 234.
[53] It is
a form of Christian worship within
the Latin Catholic Church, the Western Rite liturgical family of the Eastern Orthodox Church and in the Spanish Reformed
Episcopal Church
