Christian mass movements to
Christianity from subaltern communities and response of Gandhi and Ambedkhar
Introduction:
-
Protestant missionaries began their ministry in India in the year 1706; the
major flux of missionaries began in nineteenth century following William Carey
in 1793.[1]The
early protestant churches comprised of individuals often from widely diverse
social backgrounds[2]
and are a tiny elite group of high caste converts[3]reflected
to evangelism.[4]
The protestant missionaries condemned caste and tried to eliminate caste within
churches.[5] During
1860-1870 Christian missions, became aware of an unexpected and dramatic
development. Churches were static for decades had begun to grow at a rapid rate
through group conversions from untouchables which is a new experience not
because of converts but of their large number. This conversion was not expected
and the missionaries labeled ‘mass movements’. It took missions to adjust their
thinking and their strategy to new phenomenon, and transformed the whole
mission scene and to reassess their attitude towards caste.[6]
Mass
movement: - Mass movements are much older than the
term by which they are known.[7] There
was no information about when such movements occurred, among which jatis, and
into what churches. Because these movements varied greatly in size and
duration, took place in different periods; some affected only a few villages
for a short period of time, while other spread over large areas and continued
for decades. And there was question which should be included.[8] We
don’t know who first called these movements as mass movements. The term has not
meant the same to all who have used it. To some it is baptism and
administration, to some it is reception of outcaste into church, to some it is
the conversion of one or two small groups and to some it means caste movements.[9]
Why
mass movements took place?
Socially the low
caste people were subjected to oppressions and had conflict with upper caste,
they were considered as unclean and untouchability is practiced to prevent
contact them. The clean or unclean is based on occupation and eating habits
(e.g. workers of raw leather, sweepers, etc). They live on edge of the village
and in some places they were not allowed to build proper houses, forbidden to
use the road of high castes, not allowed to take water from the village well,
not given education, and were not expected to learn. There was discrimination
in buying and in selling products produced by low caste people gee, rice, and
food articles were also considered as unclean. Attitudes of inferiority
enforced on the people such as riding on pony, using of umbrella and wear of
cloths etc.
Economically the
caste system in India affects the distribution of wealth; they don’t have lands
and not given privilege to hold it, more over the house where they reside were
not theirs and the rooms were few in number and they don’t have windows. They have few numbers of cattle’s,
agricultural lands and were imposed with heavy taxes and compulsory labor. Most
of them were under the clutches of debts because of low income and were stricken
by poverty.
Religiously they
were not allowed to worship in temples, but they had their own deities. They
were born as poor, oppressed and belong to low caste because of their karma and
there is no way for emancipation.[10] These
factors made the people to convert into Christianity in groups.
What
it does?
The mass
movement brought in thousands of illiterate, poor and marginalized of the
society inside the church.[11] The
mass movements made protestant missionaries to have contact with dalits in many
towns and villages, and there is no evidence that they took efforts to foster
mass movements among them. It was the dalits, who took initiative in launching
the mass movement which challenged the assumptions upon missionaries’ labor for
decades.[12]
Missionaries took an active role on behalf of lower caste and dalit converts,
in abolishing some of the disabilities namely use of public roads, public
wells, and in extreme south against women wearing a “breast cloth” to cover the
upper portion of their bodies.[13]
The
term and problems: - The term mass movement is a word of
controversy and understood indifferent ways;[14] there
is opposition to use the word “Mass movement” because it is misleading.[15]It
mainly means group entry to the church, a family, a group of friends, a caste,
a community and sometimes a whole village.[16]
The Christian label for the term mass movement is the cause for problem. It was
used both for the quantity and interconnectedness of Dalit conversions.[17]
J.W.Gladstone
says large amount of conversions to Christianity took place during the period
of modern missionary movement, denoted by the term ‘Christian mass movement’.[18]It
took place within the boundaries of caste, later formed into churches dominated
by that particular caste. And mass movement is the shorter form.
According to
J.W.Pickett, “a wiser choice might have been ‘group movements’ because he
argues nowhere in India have people turned to Christ ‘en masse[19]’”.[20]
For him it is a decision favorable to Christianity.[21]
McGavaran,
suggests a new term ‘People movement’ because it includes the joint decision of
a number of individuals all from the same people without social dislocation.[22] People’s
movement means the movement by the suppressed and exploited castes of people resulting
from their own self awakening and opposing the existing socio-religious orders.
These movements cannot be said as liberation movements but it is a struggle for
social liberation.[23]
Some says the
Christian Mass movement is the beginning of modern Dalit movement. These are
localized, grass roots, conversion movements, initiated and led by Dalits.
There is lot of confusion and ignorance about the Dalit mass movements. The
reasons were it became a matter of public controversy and no proper historical research
has done. The histories of modern India dismiss the mass movement in a short
paragraph. Beginning in the mid 1970 some fresh historical studies of mass
movement have been undertaken which provide the basis for a reassessment of
their nature and significance.[24]
Early
movements: - The earliest record of Christian mass
movement was among the Paravar caste of pearl fisherman, who were much harassed
and oppressed by Arab pirates and by powerful Hindus.[25] There
had been some similar instances of protestant Mass movement during the early
nineteenth century; the Karta Bhajas at Krishnanagar in Bengal, and Shanars in
the south of Tamil Nadu.[26]
Forrester write, the case of Shanars of Tamil Nadu is one of the best
documented and most interesting of all mass movements in South Travancore and
Tinnelvelly district. It sparked off by the Sambavar movement which occurs
previously on a small scale. The CMS, SPG and LMS mission agency worked in this
region.[27]
Later
movements
North East
India: - The Assam, Manipur, Nagaland, Meghalaya, Tripura, Mizoram and
Arunachal Pradesh has both plain and hill area. The earliest nineteenth century
missionary interest in NE was shown by Baptists of Serampore. The missionaries
of American Baptist arrived at Sadiya in March, 1836. Welsh Presbytarian
mission started their ministry in North East on July 2, 1845. In 1847 or 1848
the mission was started by Cap.J.T.Gordon at Tezpur and later it was taken by
SPG. During 1870 the Lutheran Sandal Mission of Bengal was established. The
catholic missionary work began in 1890.
Causes
for Christian conversion Movement
The government
found missions useful pacifying the hills tribe and providing education at
minimal cost. The missions found it was useful in underwriting their
educational work and in providing security for both themselves and their
converts. The independence of India, paved way for the expansion of R.C. the
restrictions was removed by the government.
Educational
institutions which were supported by government were another factor. The senior
students of these schools were baptized in huge number. Through the literary
works and translation people were converted. The threat from the Hindus which
tried to lose their identity made them to move towards Christianity which is
under British rule.
The evangelistic
work of Local evangelists, Natural calamity namely famine, earthquake, and
epidemics helped them to be touched by the word of God. Revival movement which
happened in 1906-1935, the commitment of converts from the royal families attributed
a rapid growth of Christianity. Those who are converted during the revival
meetings went about sharing their experience to their fellow tribe leading to Christianity.
Mass
movement in Chota Nagpur: - The geographical boundaries of
Chotanagapur cover some part of Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa, M.P and present
Jarkhand and Chatisgarh. Munda, Oran, Santal, Ho, Kharia, Malto, Korwa, Birhor,
Bediya, Gond etc lived there with own system to govern themselves. They were
ruled by Hindus and Moghuls and in which their tribal system was severely
distorted. They lost their lands into the hands of landlords, made poor,
oppressed as forced labors (Beth-Begary), Mahajani (Money lending and Usury)
and were exploited by police.[28]
Mass
movement among Hill Aryans: - In Travancore on the
continuous request of people from Hill arrians the CMS missionary Henry Baker
(Jr) went to them as missionary. It was not the missionary who went but those
people who lived in hills came to him for more than five times and request to
come to their place. The motive of those people was religious, the search for
true God and to serve him. The mission was started at many places and the
mission at Mundakayam influenced the Hill Arryans. A mass movement began to
take place and they constructed churches and schools. The movement doesn’t face
opposition but later opposition occurred from the fellow missionaries of Baker
and from those who exploit Arrians. They were robbed, beaten, imprisoned, and
tortured in inhuman way. The movement takes its move and many got baptism.
Conversion helps them to protect themselves from other troubles from government
officials. It continued till 19th century and there was no
opposition because there was no dominant class among them and the churches were
self supported.
Mass
movement among pulaya and paraya: - These two castes
were considered as slave castes in Kerela the missionaries took efforts to
educate these people, baptized them and were assembled for worship. Opposition
came from slave owners that improvement would diminish their hold upon them.
Slavery was abolished in 1855 however opposition was there from Srian
Christians and the movement spread to other places where pulayas and parayas
reside.[29] In
Tamil Nadu the Pariyar converted to Christianity in large numbers around Madras
and vellore by Church of Scotland, reformed church and Methodists. Later at
Trichnopoly –Tanjore mass movement tokk place among Parayar first and them of
Madharis (Chakkiliyan) between 1913-1947. During the final third of the
Nineteenth century and in 1930 the pulayas were converted in mass movement.[30]
Mass
movement among Izhavas: - The mass movement among Izhavas
took place between 1850 and 1875. By accepting Christianity they expected
emancipation from many of the social bondages. They want exception from oolium[31]
service, traditional slave occupation, use of public roads etc. To achieve this
Christianity was seen as a possible means. After 1875 conversion took place but
not in the form of mass movement.[32]
Mass enthusiasm for conversion among Izhavas had cooled off after the Temple
entry proclamation.[33]
Mass
movement among kuravars: - Mass Movement took place among
these people after 1875 by LMS and CMS. The people welcomed the missionaries
and during the mass movement missionaries supported them. From Christian
village of LMS mission people came to know about Christ and it paved way for
CMS to start missionary work. They faced opposition from Nair caste. The main
aim of mass movement among them was they would emancipate from their social
bondage.[34]
Chuhras
mass movement: - In Punjab a very large mass movement
began in 1870 built momentum in 1880 and continued till 1920. Christian
population grew from 3912 to 395629 in 1931 as a result of chuhra conversion,
which is one third of the state’s population.
In U.P the first mass movement took place in
1859 when Mazhabi Sikhs approached the Baptist missionaries and in twenty years
all were converted. In 1880-1890 larger mass movements in the western part of
the state among the Bangis an lesser extent among the chamars. In 1920 there
were another large number of people converted. In Gujarat the largest movement
in the region took place between 1889 and 1905. In Maharastra only small and
brief group movements happened among Mangs and among Mahars.
Malas
Mass movement: - In Andra Pradesh in 1880 by Lutherans
Malas converted in thousands and tens of thousands. For the Baptist Madigas did
that in 1870-1880. The Methodists in the region of Medak experienced Mass
movements among malas in 1880-1890 and then among Madigas after 1906 and in
1905 -1913 the mass movement was experienced in Hyderabad – Vikarbad. In 1920
and 1930 there were huge mass movement of Malas and Madigas in the Anglican
diocese of Dornakal. The dalit mass movement led to mass movement among Sudras.
Motivation
is the key to understand Mass Movement
In 1900 South
Indian missionary conference listed five that were mostly immediate and
manifestly operative. The conviction that Christianity is the true religion; a
desire for protection from oppressors and if possible material aid; the desire
for education fortheir children; the improved character and condition of
Christians; the influence of Christian relatives.[35]
Bishop Azariah
and Whitehead says, The motive behind mass movement conversions was the desire
for self improvement, the education of their children, the conviction that they
were bad men and should become good man, salvation from a degraded life, a
belief that they had been ordered in dreams to turn to Christ, and a simple
faith in the fatherhood of God and the saving power of Jesus.[36]
Forrester
provides as to why Christianity was adopted is, that the Christians were the
first to respond to Dalit restlessness and the increasing opportunities they
found to move out of the old oppressive order. When local leaders existed and
accepted the Christian message, a mass movement took place.[37] Dalits
saw Christianity the possibility of Human betterment, of education, of concern
and help in crisis of famine and in courts; they got converted.[38]
Impact
of Mass movement
i)
It led to the dramatic increase in the
membership of churches.
ii)
There was a transformation in Christian
community from a tiny urban, educated community of mixed social origins to a
predominant poor, rural illiterate Dalit community.
iii)
The Mass movement brought dalit concerns
into the churches and drew mission into an enarged perception of their work.
iv)
It helped missionaries to involve in
agitation to secure dalits their rights (land, )
v)
It made church to be self reliable with
three Self principles (Self supporting, self governing, self propagating) It
remains the chief legacy of the mass movement to the Christian church in India.[39]
Response
of Gandhi and Ambedkhar
During 1920s
there was more number of Dalit movements in India fighting for their rights.
The participation of Christian dalits in this movement differs to their own context.
The dalits were not given representatives in assembly and there was
untouchability existed in this country. Several measures had been taken to
eradicate this evil structure, but could not and the leaders of India had
different opinion on this. Only a minority membership was given in round table
conference which was arranged for the discussion on voting and allocation of
separate constituency.[40]
Gandhi:
- Gandhi wrote and spoke against untouchability, in 1933 he fasted for the
Harijan’s. Numerous Satyagrahas were directed towards it, particularly Vykom
Satyagraha of 1924 and 1925. The main intention was the opening of certain
roads to Harijans around Vykom temple in Travancore. His battle against
untouchability is essentially a religious one, which was the special and
exclusive concern of Hindus.[41] Gandhi
sought the purification of Hinduism and Hindus by the removal of untouchability, than at any direct and immediate
change, religious, economic or social, among the Harijans. He also said that if
Hinduism were to live, then untouchability must go. Gandhi pointed out untouchability
should be removed not for the sake of Dalits but for their own sake. [42]Gandhi
got won in implementing Temple entry bill, Most of the dalits and their leaders
including Ambedkhar remained critical emphasizing Gandhi’s priorities were
wrong.[43]Christians
generally supported Gandhi’s efforts to change Hindu attitudes and to remove
the disabilities from which dalits suffered.[44]Gandhi
was strongly opposing conversion and his aim was to purify Hindiusm.[45]
The hidden motive was the threat of conversion to Christianity on a gigantic
scale from Harijans.[46] He found out after conversion of Dalit to
Christianity they faced the same discrimination and there are instances in
which he was asked to support for the Dalits.[47] He
was severely critical of Harijans who spoke of conversion to another faith as a
possible way of escape from untouchabiltiy, and even more caustic in his
attacks on those who sought to make converts among Harijans.[48]Mahatma
Gandhi has referred the motives of mass movement is entirely secular and mostly
unworthy.[49]
Ambedkar’s
declaration:- On October 13, 1935, during the course
of a lengthy speech at Bombay Presidency Depressed Classes Conference in Yeola
Dr. Ambekar said, “I had the misfortune to be born with the stigma of
‘untouchable’. But it is not my fault, but I will not die a Hindu for this is
within my power.” The conference subsequently passed a resolution to leave the
Hindu religion and join any religion which promised them equal treatment with
others. The declaration produced strong reaction. Ambedkar received many
invitations to join in religion and Zelliot mentions that “few Christians
approached him to come to light”.[50]
Ambedkar noted,” …..Caste continued
in churches, and that dalits suffered from the same disabilities after as
before conversion to Christianity. He also noted that, Christianity was not the
distinct, cohesive and effective political entity Ambedkar was seeking. By the
end of 1936 the announcement for mass conversion was seemed dim.[51]
Conclusion
The protestant
church which was formed in India comprised of high caste and people from
different sections of the society. The missionaries opposed caste and they
introduced mixed marriages in churches. But the mass movement brought huge
number of Dalits into the church which made the missionaries to think about
caste in a new phenomenon. Those who opposed earlier were now the leaders for
the Dalits, who spoke to rulers on behalf of them and eradicated many social
evils which the dalits faced. On the other side the churches which was formed
in the period of Mass Movement was clutched with the dominating caste and the
people from other caste even though they are dalits were not allowed.
The leaders like
Gandhi and Ambedkhar criticized mass movement and conversion, and it is not the
way for social freedom. Ambedkhar noted that the dalits are still facing
discrimination in churches and his notion for conversion snoozed. The reasons
for mass movement vary and it depends upon the places it took place; it may be
social, religious, economic, or political. In spite of all these critics there
are genuine conversions which cannot be questioned, because they stood for the
faith and have persecuted.
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Duncan B. Caste and Christianity, London:
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John C.B. The Dalit Christians, New
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[1]
John C.B.Webster, The Dalit Christians,
(New Dlehi: ISPCK, 1994), 35. (Here after cited as John.C.B.Webster, The Dalit Christians).
[2]
John C.B.Webster, The Dalit Christians,
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[3]
A. Jayakumar, History of Christianity in
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[4]
John C.B.Webster, The Dalit Christians,
36.
[5]John
C.B.Webster, The Dalit Christians, 37.
[6]
Duncan B. Forrester, Caste and
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B. Forrester, Caste and Christianity)
[7]
J.Waskom Pickett, Christian mass movement
in India, (Lucknow: Lucknow publishing house, 1933)P.21(Here after cited as
J.Waskom Pickett, Christian mass movement
in India).
[8]
John C.B.Webster, The Dalit Christians,
39.
[9]
J.Waskom Pickett, Christian mass movement
in India, 21.
[10] J.Waskom Pickett, Christian mass movement in India,
58-124.
[11]
A. Jayakumar, History of Christianity in
India, 78.
[12]
John C.B.Webster, The Dalit Christians,
38.
[13]John
C.B.Webster, The Dalit Christians, 37.
[14]
A. Jayakumar, History of Christianity in
India, 78.
[15]
J.W.Gladstone, Protestant Christianity
and people’s movement in Kerala, (Trivandrum: Seminary publications 1984),7.
(Here after cited as J.W.Gladstone, Protestant
Christianity and people’s movement in Kerala)
[16]
A. Jayakumar, History of Christianity in
India, 78.
[17]
John C.B.Webster, The Dalit Christians,
33.
[18]
J.W.Gladstone, Protestant Christianity
and people’s movement in Kerala, 7.
[19] French word, meaning: in a mass,
all together, as group
[20]
J.W.Gladstone, Protestant Christianity
and people’s movement in Kerala,9.
[21]John
C.B.Webster, The Dalit Christians, 33.
[22]
J.W.Gladstone, Protestant Christianity
and people’s movement in Kerala, 7.
[23]
J.W.Gladstone, Protestant Christianity
and people’s movement in Kerala, 9.
[24]
John C.B.Webster, The Dalit Christians,
33.
[25]
Duncan B. Forrester, Caste and
Christianity, 83.
[26]
Duncan B. Forrester, Caste and
Christianity, 69.
[27]
Duncan B. Forrester, Caste and
Christianity, 83.
[29]
J.W.Gladstone, Protestant Christianity
and people’s movement in Kerala, 101-122.
[30]
John C.B.Webster, The Dalit Christians,
39-41.
[31] A compulsory service done to
deities and temples
[32]J.W.Gladstone,
Protestant Christianity and people’s
movement in Kerala, 138-147.
[33]
John C.B.Webster, The Dalit Christians,
117.
[34]
J.W.Gladstone, Protestant Christianity
and people’s movement in Kerala, 147-151.
[35]
John C.B.Webster, The Dalit Christians,
52.
[36]
J.Waskom Pickett, Christian mass movement
in India, 158.
[37]
John C.B.Webster, The Dalit Christians,55.
[38]
John C.B.Webster, The Dalit Christians,
57.
[39]
John C.B.Webster, The Dalit Christians,59.
[40]
John C.B.Webster, The Dalit Christians,
98.
[41]
Duncan B. Forrester, Caste and
Christianity, 161,162.
[42]
John C.B.Webster, The Dalit Christians,
99.
[43]
John C.B.Webster, The Dalit Christians,
102.
[44]
John C.B.Webster, The Dalit Christians,
103.
[45]
John C.B.Webster, The Dalit Christians,
105.
[46]
Duncan B. Forrester, Caste and
Christianity,162.
[47]
John C.B.Webster, The Dalit Christians,
105.
[48]
Duncan B. Forrester, Caste and
Christianity,162
[49]
J.Waskom Pickett, Christian mass movement
in India,156.
[50]
John C.B.Webster, The Dalit Christians,
107
[51]
John C.B.Webster, The Dalit Christians,
117
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