Introduction
If
the reformation is judged by its consequence rather than its beginnings, the
movement began in Switzerland is more important. The principles of the Swiss
reformers, both in doctrine and in church organization had readily transplanted
to other hands and accordingly the churches of France, Scotland, Hungary and a
Great part of Germany inherited the traditions of Zwingli and Calvin.[1]
Ulrich Zwingli the leader of the Protestant Reformation in Switzerland was
strongly influenced by humanistic principles.
He expressed his views in sermons, private conversations, public
debates, and disputations before the city council. He considered Bible, the
sole source of moral and spiritual authority and he set out to eliminate
everything in the Roman Catholic system that could not be supported by the
Scripture. Zwingli successfully started a political, ecclesiastical, and
theological movement in the Swiss town of Zurich the center of church reform.[2]
This reform spread to the other cantons and to the nearby lands of Geneva and
Scotland. Calvin and Knox were prominent leaders of Geneva and Scotland. There
were few more reformers in these respective places who toiled for the spread of
reformed faith. This paper will deal about reformers like Zwingli (Switzerland),
Calvin (Geneva) and Knox (Scotland), their teachings, reforms and the reformed
tradition.
1.Socio-political context of
Switzerland during the 16th century
Switzerland
was a small country of upland valleys, bound with majestic Alpine peaks. The
Swiss were sturdy and patriotic, and love of freedom dominated their lives.[3]
The Swiss Confederation[4]
was a confederation of thirteen cantons[5],
seven urban and six rural, each governed by its town councils. The cantons are[6]
practically independent[7]
virtually autonomous or[8]
self-governing republic,[9]
bound together by defensive treaties and holding a kind of Diet[10]
of their own from time to time to transact business. In spite of their division
they were united to fight against external threat.[11]
Its sons were in great repute as soldiers and were eagerly sought as
mercenaries[12],
The repeated victories over Charles the Bold of Burgundy led to the belief that
the Swiss infantry was the best in Europe and nations at war were eager to hire
Swiss troops. Later hiring soldiers had become a custom in the Cantons.[13]
This led to merchandise their lives in quarrels not their own, and spend their
pay in riotous living when they returned to their native valleys. This led to
demoralize in another way,[14]
Kings of France and the Popes[15]
sanctioned to hire soldiers to other.[16]
Educational
status was low, humanism had penetrated the larger towns.[17]
The Swiss peasants had revolted against their landlords as early as the
beginning of the fourteenth century. After that the forest cantons[18]
formed a league for mutual defense which was joined by other little communities
of freeman. The forest cantons were independent communes of peasant
proprietors, dwelling in valleys had a simple patriarchal government, but in
all the power belonged to the people, who were freemen[19]
and they had the full right of citizenship.[20]
The Swiss cities were centers of culture and Humanism. Switzerland is further
divided into German speaking cantons in the North, led by Zurich and French
speaking cantons in the South, led by Geneva.[21]
1.1.The Swiss Church
Most
of German speaking Switzerland came under the diocese of Constance,[22]
a part of the Roman Empire.[23]
The Swiss had little experience of episcopal government, their relations with
the Papacy had been entirely political or commercial. Legates[24]
were made for commerce soldiers to form the Pope’s bodyguard, and infantry for
his Italian wars. The Swiss people singularly independent in all ecclesiastical
matters and taught them to manage their church affairs for themselves.[25]
Religious matters did not lay with the Confederation’s federal body the Diet,
but with its member states with town councils and local communities.[26]
In spite of the jurisdiction of Constance the council insisted on the church
properties and convents were under state inspection.[27]
They opposed papal domination and sale of indulgences.[28]
The educational standards and moral conduct of the clergy fell short of the
canonical requirements. Occasional
synods of the clergy was convened issuing mandates for the correction of abuses
and also by reinforcing the disciplinary powers of local deans. The secular
authorities in many parts of Switzerland were intent to bring the religious
life of their citizens, including the local clergy and bishops, under their
direct control. They involved in attack
on clerical judicial and financial immunities,[29]
and attempted to sideline the bishops’ courts[30]. The confederates sought to reduce the areas
subject to the jurisdiction of the bishop’s court in Constance. Clergies were
made answerable to the secular courts, Episcopal authority was steadily rolled
back in rural inner Switzerland and control over ecclesiastical appointments
was largely in the hands of the civic authorities.
2.The life and influence of Zwingli
2.1.Zwingli’s youth and
Education
Huldreich
(Ulrich) Zwingli was born on 1 January 1484 at Wildhaus, Toggenburg Valley in
Switzerland.[31] He came third in a large family of eight sons
and two daughters.[32]
His grandfather and then his father Huldreich served as the local magistrate,
an elected position usually filled by one of the wealthier farmers,[33]
served as the headman of the commune,[34]
the bailiff of the village.[35]Zwingli
received biblical stories and tales of saints from his grandmother. His family
members were lovers of music and they sang patriotic folk songs, which made him
to be a patriot.[36]
In 1487, Zwingli left his home to be with his uncle Bartholomew who was a
priest at Wesen and received elementary education from a Latin school. When he was ten years,[37]
his uncle saw him as a precious boy, making progress in education and to give
good education sent to Basel[38]
attended an advanced famous Latin School[39]
taught by the gentle scholar, Gregory Buenzli.[40]
From there he
was sent to Berne[41]
to a school run by Heinrich Wolflin who was a humanist,[42]
follower of Erasmus. The religious life
was also flourishing at Berne and the monasteries were also looking for young
recruits. He had a passion of music and
went to a convent with a zeal to study music and intended to become a monk, but
his parents had no desire. He was removed from Berne and sent to University of
Vienna,[43]
a recognized center for humanist studies.
From the University of Vienna, he was again shifted to University of
Basel for his higher studies. At Basel, he came in contact with Thomas
Wyttenbach, a humanist, whom Zwingli remembered as the one who awakened him
about the abuses of the traditional Church especially the indulgences. Having
received his education from humanists, Zwingli also became a humanist and held
on to their method of going back to the sources till the end of his life. [44]
He returned to Switzerland in 1502 and received his B.A in 1504 and M.A in
1506.
2.1.1.Zwingli
at Glarus and Einsiedeln
In the year
1506 he became parish priest of Glarus, there he was personally introduced to
the system of mercenary war and of pensions in which Switzerland had engaged.
He acted as regimental chaplain and was present at the fight at Novara (1513),
and that experience convinced him of the harm in this system of hiring out the
Swiss to fight in others’ quarrels and denounce the practice.[45]
Zwingli was patriotically convinced of the moral evil of mercenary service, but
the French, eager to enlist Swiss soldiers made so much trouble in his Glarus
parish.[46]
The post of People’s priest at Einsiedeln, the famous monastery and pilgrimage
resort was offered to him and accepted (April 14th 1516). He studied
the scriptures, joyfully welcomed the New Greek Testament of Erasmus, published
by Froben of Basel in 1516, and copied from it the whole of the Pauline
Epistles. He wrote annotations from Erasmus, Origen, Chrysostom, Ambrose and
Jerome, which was his constant companion.[47]
The
town was ruled by a Council or Senate composed of the masters of the thirteen “gilds”[49]
a great council of 212 members was called together on special occasions, it has
democratic constitution. The citizens engaged in quarrels with the clergy, took
advantage of the two ministers which led the Emperor’s bailiff to assert their
independence and passed laws subordinating the ecclesiastical authorities to
the secular rule. Taxes were levied on ecclesiastical as well as on secular
property all the convents were under civic control and liable to State
inspection. The popes anxious to keep on good terms with the Swiss who
furnished soldiers for their wars, had expressly permitted in Zurich.[50]
Zwingli was
posted at Great Minster and the work involved saying mass, preaching, visiting
the sick and dying. Soon after his
induction he declared that he was going to preach a series of sermons[51]
beginning from the gospel of Mathew which was not in accordance with the
existing system of that day.[52]
Zwingli became a prominent figure in Zurich when he announced his message.[53]
Zwingli also declared that in his exposition he was not going to keep to the
interpretation of the Church, but to the sense of the texts that he obtained by
his own private study. It was indeed a
bold innovation from Zwingli.[54]
Bernardin
Samson or Sanson,[55]
a Fraciscon[56]
a seller of indulgences for Switzerland came to Zurich to push his trade.
Zwingli persuaded the council of Zurich to forbid Sanson’s stay in the town.
Sanson left the city and did not give trouble to Zurichers since he received
orders from Rome. This led a curiosity
to hinder the supply of Swiss Soldiers for the papal wars.[57]
In 1520 Zwingli resigned his papal pension[58]
publicly and asked forgiveness for having accepting it so long.
2.2.Reformation in Zurich
2.2.1.Preaching-
the most effective means
At Zurich in
1519 Zwingli began his career as Reformer, his way of reformation began through
his preaching, which became his most effective means of advancing the cause of
reform. Most of his preaching was from
the New Testament, he preached from the book of Acts, Timothy, Galatians, first
and second Peter, Hebrews, Luke and John, a series of sermons. After completing his exposition of all the
books of the New Testament in 1525 he turned to expounding the first book of
the Pentateuch. The result of his
preaching was that, there was also a growing conviction among the highly placed
members of the church that internal reform was the only answer to the church’s
plight.[59]
Zwingli became a powerful preacher, able to stir and move the people by his
eloquence. He had admiring circle and young men of liberal views. His preaching
quality earned him to a commanding position in the democratic town. In his
sermons he denounced sins suggested in the passages expounded and found
occasion to deny the doctrines of purgatory and the intercession of saints.[60]
2.2.2.Breaking
the fast- emergence as reformer
The catalyst
for Zwingli’s public emergence as a reformer was an incidence of fast breaking
during Lenten season of 1522, which took place in the house of his friend
Christoph Froschauer, a printer.[61]
Zwingli’s admirers, with other Zurichers asserted their convictions,[62]
deliberately and publicly the ordinance about fasting by eating meat. Christoph
defended himself by saying that an unusual heavy amount of work was making his
workers exhausted and he was just treating them with meat as advocated by
Zwingli in his preaching. Though Zwingli
had been present, but he did not participate in the meal.[63] The reformers was produced before the council
of the city, justified themselves that it was not commanded in scriptures.[64]
When outraged citizens, along with Hugo von Hohenlandenberg Bishop of
Constance, called on the city council to punish the offenders, Zwingli preached
a sermon titled “On Choice and Liberty in Food” (23 March 1522), it was soon
enlarged into a printed pamphlet (16 April 1522). Zwingli argued that Christians are free to
fast or not to fast because the Bible does not prohibit the eating of meat
during Lent. He claimed that it was the
right of every individual to choose freely what to eat.
After
hearing that, Bishop wrote a letter to the council of Zurich to adhere to the
practice of the tradition church. At the
same time Bishop Hugo also persuaded the Swiss annual Diet which met at Baden a
few miles away from Zurich to pass a mandate prohibiting the preaching of
Reformation doctrines. While the diet
was still in session, Zwingli put an end by picking up another issue.
2.2.3.Request
for marriage approval
Zwingli,
living with the widow Anna Reinhart, led ten other Swiss priests who were
planning to marry or were already in a relationship to be accepted and wanted
to make affair public in a petition to the bishop of Constance, Bishop Hugo, To
allow priests to marry, or at least wink at their Marriages (July 1522). The priests signing this petition declared
that chastity is a rare gift of God, and that they hadn’t receive it. During that time though the clerical marriage
was commonly recognized by the people but it was forbidden by the cannon law.
In May, 1525, the council instituted a marriage law mandating clergy living in
concubinage either to end the relationship or to marry.[65]
A great council was convened in which the Bishop of Constance interfered, and
insisted that the Church had authority in such matters and that the usages it
commanded must be obeyed. The interference in the council and his speech made
the council to resolve by compromise. But, political affairs favored the
rebellion.[66]
2.2.4.Theological
education for ministers
Beginning in
1525, Zwingli instituted the practice of weekly Bible studies known as
“prophesyings”. The name, taken from 1
Corinthians 14, meant biblical instruction.
The goal was theologically to inform and mold the ministers and advanced
students of the Latin school. The
centrality of biblical instruction was basic to Zwingli’s conception of reform;
all of life, personal and communal, is to be normed by Scripture.
2.2.5.Translation
of Bible
Zurichers feel
the need for their own translation of the Bible; and Leo Juda, the Pastor of
St. Peter’s was the soul of this movement.
About 1531, the complete Zurich Bible was issued from Froschauer’s
press, magnificently illustrated; and it was the pride of Zurich that this
translation was completed before that of Luther.[67]
2.2.6.Abolition of the Mass
On Maundy Thursday,
April 13th, 1525, the first Lord’s Supper was celebrated in the
Great Minister in accordance with the simple and beautiful liturgy composed by
Zwingli. There was a large number of
crowd to attend this new service of commemoration, which was repeated on Good
Friday and on Easter Day, but the celebration of which was otherwise restricted
to the principal festivals. After the
abolition of the Mass, the altars and tabernacles were destroyed as
superfluous, the gold and silver chalices, monstrance and shrines were melted
down, the altar cloths and the vestments were sold.[68]
2.3.Zwingli’s
teachings
Zwingli
drafted sixty seven theses to be discussed, a summary of his doctrinal
teaching. They insisted the Word of God, the only true of faith, is to be received
upon its own authority and not on that of the church. They are very full of
Christ, the only savior, the true Son of God, who has redeemed us from eternal
death and reconciled to God. They attack the primacy of the Pope, the Mass, the
Innovation of the Siants, the thought that men can acquire merit by their good
works, Fasts, Pilgrimages, and Purgatory. Of sacerdotal celibacy he says it is
a shame. “Clerical marriages” were universal in Switzerland, but the Canon law
had insisted that no clergyman could marry. The offence against the vow of
chastity was condoned by a fine paid to the bishop.[69]
2.4.Triumph
of reformation
The victory of
the Reformation in Zurich is inevitable, given the relative swiftness with
which it was accomplished. Zwingli
suggested only limited changes to the liturgy, rather than the replacement of
the mass by a fully reformed Lord’s Supper. According to Church Historian
Phillp Schaff, the Reformation of Zurich was substantially completed in 1525
and was accomplished by the secular and spiritual powers that God had appointed
in Switzerland at that time and this radically caused the Roman Catholic Powers
that were still present in Zurich to submit to the civil Swiss government
because the law protected the Reformation there.[70]
Changes now
went rapidly, Priests and Nuns married. Fees for baptisms and burials were done
away. The use of images, relics and organs were done away. Monastic
establishments were removed, and the masses were abolished. Episcopal
jurisdiction had been thrown off, the sermon made central, the characteristic
doctrines and ceremonies of the older worship are absent.[71]
2.5.Expansion of Reformation to other
Cantons
The impact of Zwingli’s reformation can be realized at the other cantons
Berne and Basel, both had their own reformer who are followers of Zwingli. The
Reformation was prepared in the city and throughout Bern by three ministers,
Sebastian Meyer, Berthold Haller, and Francis Kolb, and by a gifted layman,
Niclaus Manuel, all friends of Zwingli. Basel was a center of scholars, the
Zurich disputation quickened scholars like CEcolampadius and Farel began
preaching against superstition.[72]
Very soon radical changes happened in there cantons Catholicism was put to an
end and Protestantism emerged.
3.Reformation
in Geneva
At the dawn of
sixteenth century Scotland was a poor and backward country,[73]
multicultural city bordered France, Switzerland and Savoy, French was its
mother tongue. Its government was complex, consisting of four different
councils, from the General Council of householders to the Little Council of the
four syndics, the treasurer, and twenty others. Men of influence, if they had a
majority support in the Little Council, they could control the other councils
and the city.[74]
The power of its kings was small and its nobles were turbulent. But churchly
positions were largely used to supply places for younger sons of noble houses,
and much clerical property was in the hands of the lay nobles. The weak
monarchy had usually leaned on the church as against the lay nobility. The
Genevan folk chased their bishop out of town so that the episcopal government
was really transferred to the Town council.
Education was
backward since they were weak in learning. Politically dominated by England,
Scotland in alliance with France was a great peril for England, the more
serious when England had broken with the papacy. England and France both sought
to build up parties and strengthen factions favorable to themselves in
Scotland.[75]
The city has about 13,000 inhabitants on the shores of Lake Geneva. There were
three rival parties in the city; (i) a bishop, who was a civil ruler, (ii) a
council of the citizens, (iii) the Duke of Savoy who asserted his authority
over both the bishop and the people. In 1512 the bishop and the Duke’s parties
were united. The council of people formed an alliance with two Swiss cantons,
Berne and Freiburg. In 1526 with the assistance of Protestant Berne, Geneva
became an independent city. Catholic bishop was expelled, William Farel a
powerful preacher was sent to Geneva from Berne converted many to Protestantism
and the Genevian council officially abolished Romanism.[76]
This act was opposed by Libertines[77],
and demanded to return to the old customs and the former liberties. As a result
Geneva was torn by internal strife and confusion.
3.1.John
Calvin
John Calvin or
Chauvin was born on July 10, 1509 at Noyon in Picardy,[78]
sixty seven miles northeast of Paris.[79]
His father being a lawyer hold prominent position as the secretary of the
bishopric. His father wanted him to be a priest and sent to University of Paris
at the age of thirteen. Later his father changed his mind and sent John to
study law at the University of Orleans, after his father’s death in 1531 he was
free to pursue his own interests. He was converted through an experience and
joined a little group of Protestants in Paris in 1532 and soon became one of
their leaders.[80]
3.2.Outline
of Calvin’s’ main teaching
The basis of
all Calvin’s teaching was his emphasis on the absolute sovereignty of God over
all creation. God reveals himself solely in scripture which is therefore, the
supreme authority in religion. The interpreter of the scripture is the Holy
Spirit. To do God’s will is human beings supreme duty. The total depravity of
humanity and the impossibility of human beings obeying God. Election or
predestination- only those who are elected by God will be saved. This followed
by the doctrine of irresistible grace. The perseverance of the saints. Those
who are saved are saved for eternity. The elect are justified through faith in
Christ alone. There are only two sacraments, the Lord’s Supper and Baptism both
of which are ordained by God. There are three institutions ordained by God for
the maintenance of the Christian life. The church, the sacraments, and the
state. His great concern is the knowledge of God.[81]
3.3.Calvinism
The spread of
the reformed faith was wider than that of Lutheranism mainly due to its own
merits. It was completely anti Romanism. Calvin declared the whole Roman order
corrupt. Calvinism took a firm and sober stand against fanatic Radicalism by
declaring that the Bible was the infallible source of truth. Calvinism produced
strong, well trained and aggressive men who took an active part in religious
affairs and defended Protestantism against aggressive Romanists. [82]The
relation with Rome is broken, all sort of evil things ruined the city. Calvin
took up the task of reforming the morals and manners of Geneva, of reforming
the church. Calvin’s struggle in Geneva, then was on behalf of proper
discipline. By this means he hoped to make clear that “church” is people (laity or loas), both church and state
are two aspects that do not wholly overlap.[83]
3.4.Calvin’s
contributions
In 1536 he
wrote Institutes[84]
the greatest contribution to the reformed faith, which has been accepted as the
authoritative expression of the reformed theology. He laid the foundation for
the reformed emphasis on the importance of doctrine and the centrality of God
in Christian theology. His institutes remain the greatest work of the sixteenth
century. Calvin encouraged education
and set up a three level system of education in Geneva. Geneva under Calvin’s
leadership became an inspiration and model to those of the reformed faith.[85]
4.Reformation
in Scotland
Scotland was a
poor, backward country during the reformation era. There was no centralized
government, the prince – Bishops owned one half of the land, and the secular princes
the other half. The king had little power, had no standing army, no personal
body guard, and had to depend on the Feudal militia for protection and support.
The Scottish reformation was deeply spiritual movement. But at the same time
there was a strong political undercurrent. Religion and politics went hand in
hand. Educational standards were low compared with the continental
universities. Humanistic influence was slightly felt in universities.[86]
Scottish religion at the end of the middle ages was in a deplorable state.
Clergy were largely corrupt, unworthy, uneducated and incompetent. Vacant
pastoral charges were sold to the highest bidder, few parish priests preached,
and bishops never did.[87]
4.1.The
dawn of reformation
The
reformation reached Scotland partly by way of England, partly through the
protestant students. The Bible translations of Tyndale and Coverdale were
popular. Knox and his friends were reading Luther’s lectures on Galatians.[88]
Luther’s writings were so widely read, the parliament by an act in 1525,[89]
formally prohibited it from printing and distribution. After this the
reformation was intimately bound up with the political fortunes of the land.
The marriage of King James V with Mary of Lorrain, a powerful French house,
which was violently opposed to the Protestant movement.[90]
The other
source of reformation was by Patrick Hamilton, a Lutheran (1504-1528) visited
Wittenberg and studied in Marburg, preached Lutheran doctrine and was burned on
February 29, 1528. From then onwards there were attempts for reformation.
Another preacher George Wishart, a Zwinglian (1513) was burned on March 2,
1546. This led to chaos and Beaton (Cardinal) was murdered in revenge for
former’s death.[91]
The strong dislike of the licentious French soldiers and officers stationed in
Scotland and thence a hatred of France, which affected religious affairs. The
secular nobility saw in the reformation a means of crushing the power of the
detested bishop- princes. On the other hand prominent noble families, openly
proclaimed Protestantism.[92]
The rivalry after the murders made the revolters to settle at St Andrews castle
where Knox became their Chaplain.[93]
4.2.John
Knox
John Knox was
born at Giffordsgate, a suburb of Haddington in 1505,[94]
a convert and a friend of Wishart,[95]
well educated, entered into priest hood, became tutor of sons of noble
families, lectured in Philosophy at St. Andrews, worked as chaplain and chief
reformer. Knox began his career of reformer in debate. He had been degraded
from the priest hood about 1542. The influence by eloquent and most learned
preacher George Wishart,[96]
and his study of Augustine made him a protestant. By 1546 he was generally
known as a powerful Protestant preacher. In his preaching he asserted that the
Roman Catholic Church was the Synagogue of Satan and that the Pope was the
anti- Christ.
4.3.Preaching
He was
captured by the French soldiers in 1547 and sent for nineteen months to be a
galley slave. After his release he helped the reformation in England for five
years and there exhorted a great influence. He fled because he foresaw trouble
under Queen Mary to Geneva became an ardent disciple of Calvin.[97]
He returned to England, married and went to Scotland, the time seemed to be not
yet ready to break with Rome, though there was every sign of reformation movement
and the people were favorable. But his brief stay had great significance as a
number of protestant congregations with a Presbyterian form of Church
government were organized in Scotland. On December 3, 1557 a number of nobles
decided to sever their relationship with Roman church. Together with a number
of laymen they entered a covenant to stand by one another with life and fortune
to establish the most blessed Word of God and his congregation. This is usually
referred to as the first Scottish Covenant.
4.4.Political
influence favored reformation
In 1558, there
arose rivalry between Queen Elizabeth and Mary Stwart Queen of the Scots. This
situation was utilized by Knox and his colleagues, seeking the assistance of
Queen Elizabeth. He returned in 1559 and began to preach. He received political
and military assistance from John Erskine, the leader of the first Scottish
Covenant. The people openly revolted against the Roman church. Images were
destroyed, monasteries stormed and looted, and the priests were commanded under
pain of death, to desist from saying mass. Queen sent troops to suppress the
revolt but Elizabeth Queen of England sent their troops and compelled the
French to withdraw and to leave the government of Scotland in the hands of the
Council of Lords. The treaty was signed on July 6, 1560.[98]
The visit of Queen Elizabeth triggered revolution which triumphed forfeiting
national independence through the inspiration of Knox.
4.5.Reformed
faith in Scotland
The reformers
pushed its triumph in the Scottish parliament, on August 17, 1560, a
Calvinistic confession of faith, largely prepared by Knox was adopted as the
creed of the realm. For the conduct of public worship Knox prepared a book of
common order called as “Knox’s Liturgy” which was approved by the general
Assembly in 1564.[99]
In 1560, the Scottish parliament proclaimed the reformed faith as the religion
of Scotland. Knox became the recognized church leader. He then wrote, at the
request of the parliament, a ‘Scottish Confession of Faith’, Confessio Scotina, which was adopted on
August 17, 1560. A week later the parliament passed the laws of the estate
involving a complete rupture with Rome. In January 1561 the Parliament adopted
the first Book of Discipline prepared by Knox, which provided for a
Presbyterian form of government following the French Protestant church which
was a Calvinistic system. Festivals Christmas and Easter are abolished, the
sacraments are reduced to two, ecclesiastical buildings are suppressed,
minister are appointed without ordination, have superintendents set over them.[100]
John Knox with others were seeking light from the past from the church fathers
and the Holy Scriptures. Knox sought to restore the true “face o’ the Kirk”
after its long deformity. His instruments were three: doctrine, liturgy and
discipline. Doctrine was spelled out in the confession; his liturgy was
formally “received” by the assembly 1564. The new system was provisional, being
neither episcopal nor yet presbyteral.[101]
Conclusion
The
history of church and the church gives more credit to Luther and his
reformation, but there are more reformers who strived for reforming the church
in different parts. Those reforms and their doctrines are far better than
Luther’s. Reformation in Switzerland, Geneva and Scotland are well known for
its doctrine and pattern of worship. There are various factors led to
reformation which depends upon the context of lands. Religion and politics went
hand in hand, degraded the spirituality of church. Humanism and patriotism are
two paradigms which uphold reformations. Church and society were brought under
Roman rule which created a tension among the people leading to patriotism and
thus broking out reformation attempts. Thus reformation put off only Roman rule
but not its abuses and immoral practices.
[1] T.M Lindsay, The
Reformation (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1882), 47.
[2] A.
Jayakumar, History of Reformation period
(Kolkata: SCEPTURE, 2014), 74.
[3] F.
Hrangkhuma, An Introduction to Church
History (Bangalore: Theological Book Trust, 2002), 213.
[4] When a group of people or nations form an alliance, it
is called a confederation,
allowing each member to govern itself but agreeing to work together for common
causes.
[5] A small territorial division of a country or a
subdivision of a country established for political or administrative purposes.
[6] A.
Jayakumar, History of …, 75.
[7] Williston
Walker, A History of the Christian Church
(Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1963), 320.
[8] F.
Hrangkhuma, An Introduction …, 213
[9] Walker,
A History of …, 320.
[11] F. Hrangkhuma, An
Introduction …, 213.
[12] A professional soldier hired to serve in a foreign
army, one who serves or works merely for monetary gain; a hireling. Walker,
A History of …, 320.
[13] Thomas M. Lindsay, A History of The Reformation (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons,
1917), 23.
[14] Lindsay,
A History …, 24.
[15] Walker,
A History of …, 320
[16] Lindsay,
A History …, 24.
[17]
Walker, A History of …, 320
[18] In central Switzerland, the cantons of Unterwalden, Schwyz, Uri, and Lucerne, are
the first Swiss communities to win their freedom against the Hapsburgs. In 1291
the three mountain forest cantons (Unterwalden, Schwyz, and Uri) formed the
League of Forest Cantons as the nucleus of an independent Switzerland. They
were joined by Lucerne in 1332. The Lake of the Four Forest Cantons is called
in English the Lake of Lucerne.
[19] T.M Lindsay, The
Reformation …, 48.
[20]
Lindsay, A History …, 23.
[21] E Earle. Cairns, Christianity Through the Centuries
(Tiruvalla: Suvartha Bhavan, 2004), 293.
[22] A.
Jayakumar, History of ..., 75.
[23] F. Hrangkhuma, An Introduction …, 213.
[24] A member of the clergy, especially a cardinal,
representing the Pope, a general or governor of an ancient Roman province, or
their deputy.
[25] Lindsay,
A History …, 23.
[26]
A. Jayakumar, History of …, 75.
[27] Lindsay,
A History …, 23.
[28]
F. Hrangkhuma, An Introduction …, 213.
[29]
A. Jayakumar, History of …, 75.
[30]
In Zurich, a priests’ court was created to deal with criminal cases involving
clerics and lay people as early as 1304.
[31]
A. Jayakumar, History of …, 76.
[32]
Lindsay, A History …, 24.
[33]
A. Jayakumar, History of …, 76.
[34]
Lindsay, A History …, 24.
[35] Walker,
A History of …, 320.
[36]
Lindsay, A History …, 26.
[37]
A. Jayakumar, History of …, 76.
[38]
Lindsay, A History …, 24.
[39]
A. Jayakumar, History of …, 76.
[40]
Lindsay, A History …, 24.
[41]
During that time, Berne was a free imperial city and was developing into a
political center of Switzerland.
[42]
A. Jayakumar, History of …, 76.
[43] Lindsay, A
History …, 24.
[44]
A. Jayakumar, History of …, 76, 77.
[45]
Lindsay, A History …, 26, 29.
[46] Walker, A
History of …, 321.
[47]
Lindsay, A History …, 28, 29.
[48]
The Zurich church belonged to one of the largest dioceses in the Empire, the
diocese of Constance. The bishop of
Constance had oversight of some 1,800 parishes and over 15,000 priests, 200 of
whom were in the city of Zurich. The two
major churches of Zurich were the Great Minster and the Minster of Our Lady,
both dating back to the ninth century.
An imperial city in between Great Minister and little Minister, a
trading and manufacture centre.
[49]
Twelve trade gilds and one gild representing the patriclate
[50]
Lindsay, A History …, 29.
[51]
From the fifth century, the Church had selected special sections of the Bible
for the different Sundays and Feast days, called as ‘pericopes’, which the
sermon of the day must comment. He
argued that Chrysostom and Augustine did not have such list to follow.
[52]
A. Jayakumar, History of …, 80.
[53]
Lindsay, A History …, 31.
[54]
A. Jayakumar, History of …, 80.
[55]
Lindsay, A History …, 29.
[56]
A. Jayakumar, History of …, 80.
[57] Lindsay, A
History …, 29, 31.
[58] Walker, A
History of …, 322.
[59]
A. Jayakumar, History of …, 80, 81.
[60]
Lindsay, A History …, 29, 32.
[61]
A. Jayakumar, History of …, 81.
[62]
Lindsay, A History …, 32.
[63]
A. Jayakumar, History of …, 81.
[64]
Lindsay, A History …, 32.
[65]
A. Jayakumar, History of …, 81 - 85.
[66] Lindsay, A
History …, 32.
[67]
A. Jayakumar, History of …, 88.
[68]
A. Jayakumar, History of …, 85.
[69] Lindsay, A
History …, 33.
[70]
A. Jayakumar, History of …, 85, 88.
[71] Walker, A
History of …, 323.
[72]
A. Jayakumar, History of …, 90-91.
[73] Walker,
A History of …, 368.
[74] Joseph C. Mc Lelland, The Reformation and its significance Today (Philadelphia: The
Westminster Press,),41
[75]
Walker, A History of …, 368, 369.
[76] F. Hrangkhuma, An
Introduction …, 216.
[77] A person, especially a man, who freely
indulges in sensual pleasures without regard to moral principles, a freethinker
in matters of religion.
[78]
T.M Lindsay, The Reformation …, 57.
[79]
F. Hrangkhuma, An Introduction …,
217.
[80]
T.M Lindsay, The Reformation …, 57.
[81] Joseph, The
Reformation …, 44.
[82] F. Hrangkhuma, An
Introduction …, 224.
[83] Joseph, The
Reformation …, 41, 42.
[84] F. Hrangkhuma, An
Introduction …, 219.
[85] Cairns,
Christianity Through…, 305.
[86] F. Hrangkhuma, An
Introduction …, 230.
[87] Joseph, The
Reformation …, 67.
[88]
Joseph, The Reformation …, 68.
[89] J.W.C. Wand, A
History of The Modern Church (London: Methuen &Co. Ltd, 1930), 100.
[90] F. Hrangkhuma, An
Introduction …, 231.
[91] Walker, A
History of …, 369.
[92]
F. Hrangkhuma, An Introduction …,
232.
[93]
Wand, A History of The Modern Church…,
101.
[94]
T.M Lindsay, The Reformation …, 114.
[95] Walker, A
History of …, 369.
[96] Joseph, The
Reformation …, 69, 68.
[97] F. Hrangkhuma, An
Introduction …, 232.
[98] F. Hrangkhuma, An
Introduction …, 233.
[99] Walker, A
History of …, 370, 371.
[100] Wand, A History
of The Modern Church…, 101, 102.
[101] Joseph, The
Reformation …, 75.
