INTRODUCTION
About
3,500 years ago, a group of people from central Asia entered India in search of
a land to occupy and to make a living. They were then called as Aryans and established
their dominance over the indigenous people who had been living there. Caste is
a social division of an unequal order within one race.[1] Today,
in India, caste is considered as one of the burning issues which disturb the
harmony and oneness of the people. Both the political and religious leaders forced
to speak about this evil system. In the end of the Rig Vedic period the four
fold division of society was regarded as fundamental, primeval and divinely
ordained.[2]
1.Caste
The
English “caste” is derived from the Portuguese and Spanish word ‘casta’ which
means ‘race’. Varna or color and jati or race, are the two commonest words in
Indian languages which are interchangeably used to denote ‘caste’. Varna in
classical Sanskrit generally means color and so it has been argued that the
‘varna system’ was based on the differences in skin color between the Aryans
and the pre-Aryan residents of India. [3]
1.1
Origin of caste
The
Aryans who entered India had constant conflict with the indigenous peoples, and
they looked them as culturally inferior and excluded as ritually clean.
1.1.1 Varnashrama:
The origin of caste system, called Varnashrama, was legitimate and virtuous. It
was meant for the progressive organization of society. Varnashrama is the vedic
system that divides society into four natural groups, depending on individual
characteristics and dispositions. Everyone has certain tendencies by their own
natural inclinations and choice. These inclinations are also seen in one’s
occupational preferences.[4]
1.2
Varna in the Vedic literature
The
Rig Veda is the earliest and most important of the four Vedas and is roughly
estimated to date from 1400B.C. There are various references to groups which
have been interpreted such as Aryans and Non-Aryans in Rig Veda (10:90:11, 12).Brahamanas
speaks of only three varnas as found in 11:1, 4:12. But in later Brahamanas,
the term varna is applied to four classes:Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and
Sudras.[5]
1.2.1 Brahmins:
There were learned Brahmins, performing all the rites of the Aryans and
receiving great respect; but there were also village Brahmins, who made much of
their living by fortunetelling and magic and who were less honored.[6]
1.2.2 Kshatriyas:
The theoretical duty of the Kshatriya was ‘protection’, which included fighting
in war and governing in peace. The historical Budha was a Kshatriya, and his
followers evidently had few doubts about class priorities. [7]
1.2.3 Vaisyas :
In vedic times the Vaisya or mercantile class, were entitled to the service of
priesthood and to the sacred thread of initiation. They were the ancient Indian
businessman.[8]
1.2.4 Sudras:
The word ‘sudra’ occurs only once in the Rig veda, they were not ‘twice born’
and there was initiation into full Aryan society. According to the Braminical
text the chief duty of the pure surdra was to wait on the other three classes.[9]
1.3
Estabilshment of caste
The
Brahmins as a caste are responsible for establishing caste system in India as a
social order that governs the system of the country. The Aryans came here,
applied the policy of “divide and rule”, propound the theory of casteism and
made castes, sowed the seeds of discrimination among the native people.[10]
1.4
Characteristics of the caste system
The
caste system continues to be a fact of life in India that dominates
interpersonal and inter-group relations. Caste is based on birth; it offers
ascribed status. It is group based, rigid and fixed. It is based on Karma
theory. The principle that manifests in caste society is the principle of
complementaries.” The real triumph of the caste system lies not on upholding
the supremacy of the Brahmin, but in conditioning the consciousness of Lower
castes in accepting their inferior status in the ritual hierarchy as part of
the natural order of things.[11]
2.Dalit
The
term “Dalit” is often used in Sanskrit as a noun and an adjective.[12] Dalits are a mixed population,
consisting of numerous social groups from all over India; they speak a variety of languages
and practice a multitude of religions. In 2001, the proportion of Dalit
population was 16.2 percent of India's total population. The state
of Punjab had the highest proportion of its population as Dalit,
at about 29 percent, and the state of Mizoram had the lowest at nearly zero. The government of India
recognizes and protects them as Scheduled Castes. The term Dalit has been
interchangeably used with the term Scheduled Castes, and these terms include
all historically discriminated communities of India out-caste and Untouchables.[13]
2.1
Origin of Dalits
The
Dalits, called the dasyas, were the natives of the soil whose towns and
fortress were captured and properties seized by the aggressive Aryans and who
were gradually being pushed away from their own villages and towns. The original
Indians were counted as out castes and as untouchables (Asprushya)
outside the pale of society, thus calling them as panchamas(fifth varna) or the fifth people. It is the fifth
people who are today’s Dalit.[14]
2.2
Dalit’s Religion
Dalits are not Hindus; they had
their own religious systems quite distinct from Brahminical beliefs and
practices. It was difficult to place them anywhere because they did not worship
any Hindu gods and nor go to mosques or Church to pray. They had their own folk
heroes whom they worshipped, but this tradition is now fast being forgotten,
because Hindu organizations are desperately trying to Hinduise them.[15]
2.3 God and godess:-The
Dalit had separate gods and goddess for their religious worship. Each deity had
been celebrated into different types of festivals. For example, Mariamma,
Ankanmma, Kamatchi, Meenakshi, all were the goddess and Muni, Karupanna Samy,
Karrupusamy, Mada Samy are the gods of the Dalits.[16]
2.4
Priest and Sacrifice:-In Dalit‟s
worship, sacrifices, festivals were conducted and offered by a Dalit priest who
would have appointed by the community itself. In the Dalit worship sacrifice
plays an important role. The whole community will gather to celebrate this
sacrificial festival. The sacrificing of a he-goat called as Kada Vettu.
This is very significant from other sacrifices. Because, for the Kada Vettu,
the worshipper who brought the goat, he/she will not offer for his/her own
well-being, but also to his/her kinsmen. He/she will invite everyone for this
occasion, and all together would cook the sacrificed goat and eat together and
celebrate the festival. Blood sacrifice is very important, however, these were
now alternated by vegetables and flowers, (Coconuts, Banana) etc. [17]
2.5 Temple Worship:-All
the Dalit deities were previously installed at an open place of the village,
sometimes it used to be at the border or boundaries of the village. It shows
that deity is very closely connected with Dalit people. People can easily
approach the deity for their need. In some Dalit community they use even filthy
words to scold the deity for she/he is not blessing their family. Nevertheless,
at present the Dalit deities had been Brahmanised that they had been put into a
structure called temple. Where the Dalits were not allowed for some period and
the community oriented worship is totally isolated by the Brahmins. There were
only folk-lore and oral traditions were followed in the religious traditions of
Dalits.[18]
3.Tribals
A
group of persons forming a community and claiming descent from a common ancestor
were named as ‘Tribals’. According to Morris, Any of various systems of social
organization comprising several local villages, bands, districts, lineages, or
other groups and sharing a common ancestry, language, culture, and name. Morris
(1980) also notes that a tribe is a group of persons with a common occupation,
interest, or habit, and a large family.[19] Some
anthropologists have called the tribals backward Hindus. But the Government of
India has made it quite clear that the tribals are not backward Hindus. Though
this classification is not based on religion, yet we can say that the tribals
and other backward caste have different religious beliefs and practices. The
concept of primitive religion has been used for Tribal religion. Tribal
religion described as animism, animatism or spiritism in most available
literature.[20]
3.1 High God or Supreme God:
- In all the tribal groups we find the idea of a supreme being. The tribal’s ascribe
to the Supreme Being of all goodness, law and power. He created the heaven and
the earth and all that is therein. Ceremony
is performed at birth, name-giving, marriage and sickness in the life of the
individual, on the occasion of sowing seed, harvesting and feast of the first fruit,
which is connected with prayers and sacrifice. Prayers and sacrifice of eggs or
white fowl are offered to Supreme God so that he might save the individual and family
from the evil eye and evil mouth. The Tribal’s first approach lower deities or
spirits and then approaches the Supreme Being.[21]
3.2 Guardian Sprits:
- The Tribal community has many spirits to guard and protect the village from
disease, pestilence and natural devastation like failure of crops, storm and
floods. The village priest offers sacrifices during the festival. Fowls, goats
and rams are offered to it. The boundary
spirit serves as an assistant to Supreme God. The Sprit guards the village from
outside attacks, physical and spiritual, seen and unseen. There are other minor
spirits which are worshipped by a clan, a family or even by individual. They
worship and offer sacrifices because of fear. They will be in danger if they
did not offer sacrifices.[22]
3.3 Other spirits and Demons:
- There are a host of other spirits and demons which are revered and feared by
the tribal’s. These spirits might be called natural forces. They reside in
Hills and Valleys, rivers and rivulets. Some of them have their abode in trees
and stones of unusual shape and size. The demons are powers which always try to
harm the tribal’, and they are pet deities to witches. The minor spirits when
worshipped by individuals give them certain power to perform any task better
than normal person, either to harm or to do good.[23]
3.4 Cult of the ancestor:
- In a tribal community the deceased members of the family form continuity with
the living. The ancestral spirits are invoked for the help and welfare of the
living members of the clan. They offered grains of rice at meal. At all the
major feasts and festivals they offered a portion of each item of the meal. The
spirits of the ancestors are supposed to come to help at all difficult moments
of the living members of the family.[24]
3.5 Tribal Totemism:
- The clan in a tribal society is associated with a particular totem, animal,
plant, tree, fowl or some other thing. Nobody knows how totemic clans
originated. They believe that there is deeper relation between the tribal clan
and the clan totem; the clan god. The clan sacrifice and participation in
eating the sacrifice meal by the members renew the fellowship with the spirit.
A clan totem seems to serve two vital purposes in tribal life. First it is
linked between the natural world and human society. Secondly, it connects up
the human world with the spiritual world through the clan god.[25]
3.6 Magic, witchcraft and sorcery:
- Witchcraft and sorcery are very common in all tribal societies. Magical
activities are of two types –black magic and white magic. Black magic is
performed and practiced by Dains (witches), Bisahas (wizards), the matis and
the Deonras (the witch doctors). White magic is performed by the Bhagats
(literally devotees). Witchcraft is secret knowledge related to some spirit
power, acquired by training. Women are professional witches.[26]
3.7 Place of worship:
- tribal religion cannot be termed a religion of worship in the usual sense.
Only sacrifices are offered to the deities with prayer in a common spot.[27]
3.8 Priest hood:
- Tribal priest hood is both hereditary and elective. Their main function is to
offer sacrifices at all the tribal festivals and other important occasions in
tribal social and individual life. The birth, death and marriage rites are
performed by them. He is in charge of keeping all the tribal deities happy,
joyful and has the knowledge of how to deal with them.[28]
3.9 Festivals:
- The major festivals among the tribal’s are connected with their life
occupation. There are many minor festivals among the tribals.[29]
4. Adhivasis
The word adivasi is a compound of
two elements that ultimately derive from Sanskrit. Adi means “first”
or “original;” vasi means “dweller.” Adivasi, then, means the
“first inhabitants.” Adivasis have been designated by other terms as
well, most of them derogatory, such as jangli (“jungle person”). In
India some caste-Hindus, disputing the adivasi claim to be
indigenous, now prefer to call them vanvasis, "forest dwellers."
They are also often called “tribals” and “ST’s.” The term "tribal"
was introduced by the British, while in Indian law the majority
of adivasis belong to the “Scheduled Tribes,” that is,
"tribes" to whom Schedules 5 and 6 of the Indian Constitution apply.
As a designation for the indigenous peoples of South Asia the
term adivasi came into use in the 1920s and was gradually adopted and
popularized by Gandhians.[30]
The 2011 Indian census have not yet been
released, but those that have indicate that adivasis have generally made
up a bit more than 8% of the Indian population; one would estimate that at
least roughly 97,000,000 adivasis live in India today.
Adivasis are rural people, According to the 2001 Census of India only 2.4% of adivasis live in urban areas.
It is now common, however, for adivasis to move to cities
temporarily in search of work. By most economic and social
measures ādivāsīs constitute the poorest strata of Indian society. They
have also suffered disproportionately from developmental and other projects,
which have disrupted their traditional ways of life and displaced them at a
rate far higher than any other Indian group. The Government of India officially
recognizes 461 groups as “Scheduled Tribes”. It lists their essential
characteristics as being "Primitive Traits, Geographical isolation,
Distinct culture, Shy of contact with community at large, Economically
backward. Adivasis are especially concentrated in a belt that
stretches across central India from Rajasthan and Gujarat in the west to West
Bengal and Orissa in the east as well as in several states in the northeast.[31]
There are different groups of Adhivasis in India, celebrate different festivals
depending upon their own customs and traditions.
4.1
Festivals of Adhivasis
Sarhul:- Sarhul is celebrated during the spring
season when the Shaal trees get new leaves. Sarhul festival is the worship of
the village deity who is considered to be the protector of the tribes. The
deities are worshipped with Shaal flowers. The Shaal flowers represent the
brotherhood and friendship among villagers. The priest is called Pahan and he
distributes Shaal flowers to every villager. The Prasad is then distributed
among the villagers.
Karam:- Karam Devta, the God of Power, youth
and youthfulness is worshipped during the festival. The festival is held on the
11th day of the phases of moon in the Bhadra month. The groups of young
villagers go to the jungle and collect the items required for Puja i.e. wood,
fruits and flowers. During this entire period people sing and dance in groups.
The entire valley seems to be dancing with the drumbeats. This is one of the
rare examples of such a vital and vibrant youth festival in Jharkhand’s Tribal
area At the same time, the unmarried young tribal girls celebrate the Jawa
festival. This is held mainly in expectation of good fertility and better
household. The unmarried girls decorate a small basket with germinating seeds.
It is believed that the worship for good germination of the grains would
increase the fertility. The girls offer green melons to the Karam deity as a
symbol of ‘son’ which reveals the primitive expectation of human being, i.e.
grains and children. The entire tribal area of Jharkhand becomes tipsy during
this time.
Tusu
Parab or Makar:-
This festival is mostly seen in the area between Bundu, Tamar and Raidih area
of Jharkhand. Tusu is a harvest festival held during the winter in the last day
of Poush month. It is also for the unmarried girls. Girls decorate a wooden/
bamboo frame with coloured paper and then contribute it to the nearby hilly
river.
Hal
Punhya:- Hal Punhya is
a festival which begins with the fall of winter. The first day of Magh month,
known as “Akhain Jatra” or “Hal Punhya”, considered as the beginning of
Ploughing. The farmers, to symbolize this auspicious morning plough two and
half circles of their agricultural land this day is also considered as the
symbol of good fortune.
Bhagta
Parab:- This festival
comes between the period of spring and summer. Among the tribal people of
Jharkhand this festival is best known as the worship of Budha Baba. People fast
during the day and carry the bathing Pahan the priest, to the tribal mandir
called Sarana Mandir. The Pahan sometimes called Laya, gets out of the pond,
the devotees make a chain, locking their thighs with each other and come
forward to offer their bare chest to Laya for walk over. After the worship in
the evening, devotees take part in dynamic and vigorous Chhau dance with lots
of gymnastic actions and masks. The next day is full of primitive sports of
bravery. The devotees pierce hooks on skin and get tied at one end of a long
horizontal wooden pole, which is hanging on the top of a vertical Shal wood
pole. The height goes up to 40 feet. The other end of the pole which is
connected with a rope is pulled around the pole by the people and the tied
devotee display the breath-taking dance in the sky. This festival is more
popular in the Tamar region of Jharkhand.
Rohin:- This festival is perhaps the first
festival of Jharkhand in the calendar year. It is a festival of sowing seeds in
the field. Farmers start sowing seeds from this day but there is no dance or
song like other tribal festivals but just a few rituals. There are some other
festivals like Rajsawala Ambavati and Chitgomha which are also celebrated with
Rohin.
Bandna:- Bandana is one of the most famous
festivals celebrated during the black moon month of Kartik (Kartik Aamavashya).
This festival is mainly for the animals. Tribals are very close with animals
and pets. In this festival, people wash, clean, paint, decorate feed well and
put ornaments to their cows and bulls. The song dedicated for this festival is
called Ohira which is an acknowledgement for animal’s contribution in their
day-to-day life. The belief behind this festival is animals are integral part
of life and have souls as human being do. The most exciting day of the bandana
week is the last day. Closured Bulls and buffalos are chained to a strong pole
and they are attacked with a dry animal Hyde. The angry animals hit the dry
skin with ithier horns and the crowd enjoys. Generally the colours used for
decorating animals are natural colours and this artwork is of folk type.[32]
5.
Hindutva and Adhivasis
From 1987 Sangh (RSS) has activated its offshoot Vanvasi Kalyan
Ashram (VKA) into higher gear of activity. Adivasis, the most neglected part of
society are being wooed through newly devised cultural mechanisms.
To begin with Vanvasi Kalyan Ashram used the word Vanvasi, instead
of the correct nomenclature, Adivasi. The claim put forward by Hindutva is that
these are parts of Hindu society who went to jungles to escape the conversion
by Muslim kings. Due to their long stay in jungles they became untouchables and
drifted away from the fold of Hindu society.
The posting of RSS volunteers into the forest work was very
systematic. The Ghar vapasi was brought in at a big scale in all the Adiviasi
areas scattered from Gujarat to MP to Orissa. Around this time many a swamis,
descended in these areas, Lakkhanand in Phulbani area, Aseemanand in Dangs,
Asaram disciples in Jhabau and many other such efforts were unleashed. In
Adivasi areas they resorted to intimidation, you are Hindus, Hindu rituals are
like this and so these have to part of your life. Dilip Singh Judeo, of the
'God is money' fame, of Chattisgarhg, had the record number of Adiviasis
converted in to Hinduism by newly devised baptizing techniques.
At the same time Hanuman was popularized as the God in this area
and lately Shabri, the destitute women who had the privilege of offering wild
berries to Lord Ram is being projected as the Goddess of Adivasis. The cultural
symbolism cannot be missed in the selection of these deities. Hanuman was the
unquestioning devotee of Lord Ram, with muscular power as the main virtue. He
is capable of flying while carrying a huge mountain. But all the more he is
carrying the mountain because he cannot identify the herb needed for treatment
of Laxman, Lord's younger brother. This is what is the signal to Adivisis,
unquestioning loyalty to Lord Ram, no need to have education.[33]
6. STATUS OF INDIGENOUS RELIGIONS
The
indigenous religions of India have been eradicated by Hindu and Christian
religions in four ways. They are given below
1.Sanskritisation:- Sanskritisation,
a process whereby low status people adopt the terminology and procedures
embodied in the Sanskrit scriptures. As Sanskrit is intimately associated with
Brahminism, the process might tend to weaken primitive religion in the case of
Dalits who sought to Sanskritise themselves. It also involves Sanskritising
personal names, the name of the caste, name of its gods. In addition, a low
caste status group may imitate the ways and customs of the Sanskrit tradition.
The food and marriage habits of Brahmins, discouragement to widow marriage, reduction
or elimination of animal sacrifice and substituting grains and flowers, the
practice of casting horoscopes, the sixteen rites of passage, pilgrimages, the
use of Hindu Scriptures, adoption of Brahminical festivals or participation
therein, the equation of the divinities in the two traditions. The spread of
Sanskrit theological ideas increased under British rule. The development of
communications and the spread of literacy carry it to groups very low in the
caste hierarchy. Western technology-
railways, the internal combustion engine, press, radio, aided the spread of
Sanskritisation.
2.
Aryanisation:- Aryanisation is also to be understood as
an imposition of Aryan cultural values in a strategic way to enslave and bring
the indigenous people under their control. It could be called a kind of forced
Sanskritisation by which the low caste communities are allowed to be partners
of Brahminical Hindu social order. D. Jothimani reports that the Aryanisation
that took place in the middle ages in the South among the Tamils was the root
cause for the socio-economic and political suppression of the indigenous
people, the Paraiyar, Nadar and other communities of Dalits. They were
considered by caste Hindus as the most defiling and degraded of all castes.
They were forbidden entry into Hindu temples and their use of public wells was
strictly prohibited. Their women were kept half-naked and not allowed to clothe
the upper portion of their bodies. In short they were dehumanised and deprived
of all human rights. Dalits were not allowed to wear footwear, good clothes or
jewels or use umbrellas. In public places no one could use an umbrella except a
Brahmin.
3.
Brahmanisation: - Brahmanisation is subsumed in the wider
process of Sanskritisation though at some points Brahmanisation and
Sanskritisation are at variance with each other. For instance, the Brahmins of
the Vedic period drank soma (an alcoholic drink), ate beef, and offered
blood sacrifices. Both were given up in post-Vedic times. In brief, the customs
and habits of the Brahmins changed after they had settles in India. Had the
term Brahmanisation been used, it would have been necessary to specify which
particular Brahmin group was meant, and at which period of its recorded
history. The priest hood office had been Brahminised and at present all the
Brahmin priests had taken the position to conduct worship. They use the Vedic
language i.e., Sanskrit to praise and pray to the Dalit deity. The worship
places, sacrifices, literature, gods and godess were Brahmanised.
4.
Christianisation: - Christianization
is the conversion of individuals to Christianity or the conversion of entire peoples at
once. Various strategies and techniques were employed in Christianization
campaigns. Indigenous gods were demonized,
and traditional religious practices were condemned as witchcraft. The missionaries used English language and
worship pattern was western. In
some instances they allowed caste system in churches by conducting Lord’s
Supper individually for different caste people. Mass conversion occurred
because of famine, low status of Dalits, new education system.
CONCLUSION
The
Aryans who invaded India tried to occupy the land by fighting. But they could
not because the people were strong and so they tried to divide people on the
basis of color. They were given different duties to serve the higher people. The
Dalits and Tribals are the original people of this land who are now considered
as lower or untouchables by other peoples. Their religion and religious
practices are different as mentioned. Now by Sanskritisation, Aryanisation, Brahmanisation, and Christianisation, the
traditions, culture, religion, religious practices and customs of the Dalit and
tribal communities have been changed and gradually vanished from their lives.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Christhudhas,
Sheela. Evils of caste system. New Delhi: ISPCK, 1993.
Onesimu,
David J.A. Constructing Dalit Theology for Dalit Liberation. New Delhi: ISPCK, 2012.
Thomas,
M.M, R.W. Taylor, Tribal Awakening. Bangalore: Christian Institute, 1965.
Naswa,
Sumedha. Tribes of Uttarpradesh and Uttranchal. New Delhi: Mittal Publications,
2001.
Thorat,
Sukhadeo. Dalits in India. New Delhi: Sage Publications, 2009.
Massey,
James. Roots – A Concise History of
Dalits. New Delhi: ISPCK, 1994.
Massey,
James. Dalits in India. New Delhi: Manohar, 1995.
WEBLIOGAPHY
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dalit,
07.08.2013 at 08:32 pm
http://dalitliberation.blogspot.in/2008/06/interview-bhagwan-das-on-dalit.html
06.08.2013 at 10;55 pm
Robert J.
Gregory, Tribes and Tribal: Origin, Use, and Future of the Concept, 06.08.2013
at 11:09 pm
Sikand. Yoginder, Interview: Bhagwan Das on Dalit Religious
Traditions and the Hindutva Challenge, 07.08.2013 at 10:55 pm
Jeevaraj A., Sanskritisation,
Aryanisation, Brahmanisation, and Christianisation, 07.08.2013 at 10:31 pm
http://www.ambedkar.org/News/Dalitsand.htm,
07.08.2013
[1] J.A.David Onesimu, Constructing Dalit Theology for Dalit
liberation, New Delhi: ISPCK, p.1.
[2] Sheela Christhu Dhas, Evils of Caste System, New Delhi: ISPCK,
p.8.
[3] Ibid,p.9.
[4] J.A David Onesimi, Ibid, p.2.
[5] Sheel ChristhuDhas, Ibid, p.10
[6] Ibid.
[7] Ibid, p.10.
[8] Ibid.
[9] Ibid.
[10] J.A.David Onesimu, Ibid, p.3.
[11] Ibid, p.4.
[12] Ibid, p.25.
[13] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dalit 07.08.2013at 08:32 pm
[14] J.A.David Onesimu, Ibid, p.13.
[16]
A.Jeevaraj, Sanskritisation, Aryanisation, Brahmanisation, and
Christianisation , 07.08.2013 at 10:31 pm
[17] A.Jeevaraj, Sanskritisation, Aryanisation,
Brahmanisation, and Christianisation , 07.08.2013 at 10:31 pm
[18] A.Jeevaraj, Sanskritisation, Aryanisation,
Brahmanisation, and Christianisation , 07.08.2013 at 10:31 pm
[19] Robert J. Gregory, Tribes and Tribal: Origin, Use, and Future of the
Concept,06.08.2013 at 11:09 pm
[20] M.M Thomas, R.W.
Taylor, Tribal Awakening. Bangalore:
Christian Institute, p.122.
[21] Ibid, p.123.
[22] Ibid, p.125.
[23] Ibid, p.126.
[24] M.M.Thomas,Ibid, p.127.
[25] Ibid, p.128.
[26] Ibid, p. 130.
[27] Ibid, p.134.
[28] Ibid, p.135.
[29] Ibid, p.136.
