Robert Caldwell - A Great historian

As a missionary Caldwell came to India, his journey from Madras to Idayankudi on foot, his experience with the people and his contact with them made him a historian. He was pioneer in introducing local historiography.  He was aware of the paucity of sources of history in most of the districts of India. In the absence of genuine historical literature, historians have to rely upon other reliable data. Caldwell as Indologist narrated the social life of the people vividly in his writings. 

Caldwell considered geography is the right eye of history and was very clear that the deciding factor of history of a country is its geography. He found out that the learned Indians lack geographical knowledge so in the book "History of Trinelveli" he begins with a description of the physical and geographical features of Trinelveli.

He made a call to the graduates to make a systematic study of the history of South India, in the light of inscriptions and coins at Madras University convocation address in 1879. Historians accuse Caldwell of not adopting any methodology, but everyone will acknowledge that he marked the beginning of local historical writing. " Any body can make history, only a great man can write" was the famous quotation of Oscar Wilde and Caldwell is placed in the line of great historians.   

Christmas or X mas

The history of the word “Xmas” is actually more respectable — and fascinating — than you might suspect. First of all, the abbreviation predates by centuries its use in gaudy advertisements. It was first used in the mid-1500s. This term "Xmas"­ isn't a modern convention at all. It was used commonly in 16th-century Europe, when many people began using the term "Christos," the Greek translation for Christ, to refer to Jesus. X is the Greek letter “chi,” the initial letter in the word Χριστός.  Χριστός means “Christ.” X has been an acceptable representation of the word “Christ” for hundreds of years. This device is known as a Christogram. The ‘mas’ in Xmas is the Old English word for “mass.”  In the same vein, the dignified terms Xpian and Xtian have been used in place of the word “Christian.” the term Xmas was used to refer to the birth of Jesus as an informed abbreviation, not an offensive one. Xmas was a way for Christian scholars to refer to Jesus respectfully in an ancient language -- not to disrespect his name with a harsh symbol. Eventually, this shorthand trick spread to non-religious writings where nearly everywhere “Christ” appeared in a word, the Greek Chi would replace that part of the word. For example, in the 17th and 18th centuries, there are numerous non-religious documents containing instances of “Xine”, which was a common spelling for someone whose name was Christine.

The History of the Nativity Scene

The Birth of the Nativity Scene

The first-ever Nativity scene recorded in history was created by St. Francis of Assisi. St. Francis was concerned that the meaning of Christmas was becoming lost as most people were more focused with the ritual of gift giving them they were of the true message of Christmas.

Determined to remind people what Christmas is really about, he set about creating the world’s first known Nativity scene to help tell his people of The Nativity Story. It was created in a cave and near Greccio, Italy, and involved real people and animals, making it a living Nativity scene.

Today, nearly 800 years later, we still hear religious leaders echoing St. Francis’s words. The true message of Christmas is becoming lost; buried underneath layers of secular traditions. Yet at the same time, we also still see nativities everywhere come Christmas time.

While living Nativity scenes still exist today, much more popular are static versions that require no real people or animals. Some of the most famous Nativity scenes can be found at the Vatican, the White House, and in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania.

How Nativity Scenes Came to our Homes

Nativity scenes and sets as we know them today found their roots in the 1300’s. They started as display pieces for Italian churches. Often made out of terracotta, these early Nativity sets were displayed year round.

In the mid-1500’s, Nativity sets began to appear Not only in churches, but in the homes of wealthier citizens, even though some prominent religious groups in Italy at the time were attempting to move away from nativities altogether.

These are much smaller versions than the large statue found in churches. Instead of being constructed solely of terracotta, artisans began using wax and wood as well. They were also dressed in beautiful clothes.

Over the years, the nativities spread to practically all Christian countries, each region adding its own influence and unique style. Traditions were also developed in some countries, most notably in Central American and Mediterranean countries.

The home Nativity was picked up more than anybody by the Germans, where Catholic and Protestant families alike display them in their homes. It is still tradition in Germany to display all parts of the Nativity set with the exception of baby Jesus, who is only displayed after Christmas Eve, as before that time he is not yet been born. Most other regions, including America, do not follow this tradition.

Today’s Nativity Sets

Today, the typical Nativity set is made out of more modern materials, such as porcelain, ceramic, resin, and sometimes china, but some sets are still carved out of wood, or even a more expensive olive wood.

The basic nativity set should consist of at least five pieces. The stable, of course, is the setting. The manger where baby Jesus will rest, is placed front and center in the stable. This is because Jesus is the most significant piece in any Nativity set. Mary and Joseph are also prominent, but not as prominent. Mary is often placed right beside the manger, fondly looking over her son, while Joseph can either be placed on the other side of the manger looking down on Jesus, or slightly away from the manger looking away. Together, these five pieces, stable, manger, Christ child, Mary and Joseph, make a complete yet basic set.

In addition to the basic set, it is not uncommon to add the star of Bethlehem, the Angel Gabriel, the shepherds, the Wisemen, and various barn animals. Many people consider keeping a Nativity on display over the Christmas holidays is a great way to remind us all of the true message of Christmas. Nativity scenes can start out small, and become hobbies for families, where a new piece or pieces are added each year.

The oldest church

St.Thomas Church Thiruvithancode

In olden times Thiruvithancode was the capital of Travancore Kingdom.  Thiruvithamcode Arappally (“Royal Church”); Tamil:திருவிதாங்கோடு அரப்பள்ளி; Malayalam: തിരുവിതാംകോട് അരപ്പള്ളി;), or Thomayar Kovil or St. Mary's Orthodox Church, also called Amalagiri church as named by the Chera King Uthiyan Cheralathan, was built by St. Thomas, known as the Apostle of India, in 57 AD. Thiruvithamcode also spelled as Thiruvithancode, Thiruvithankodu and Thiruvithangodu.

It is believed by the Christian communities that St. Thomas, the Apostle of Jesus Christ came to India, preached the gospel and established churches in Crangannore, Palur, Paraur, Gokkamangalam, Niranam, Chayal, Kollam and Thiruvithancode and appointed prelates and priests. The Thiruvithamcode church was built in AD 63, is believed to be one of the oldest church structures in the world.

Some people have misunderstand that “Arapally” means half church (Ara means half) and the myth is propagated far and wide. But here the word “Ara” related to the word “King”. Arappalli means King’s Church; such as Aramana (King’s House), Arayal (King Tree), and Arayannam (King Bird) in the local language. The word ‘ara’ in Arapally doesn’t necessarily mean ‘half’ as is understood in the local language. Instead, it could denote a royal connection, because the Dravidian word for king, is ‘Arasan’. Thus the church could have been termed ‘Arapally’ because it was constructed and maintained with the support and patronage of local kings,” says Rev. Barsleebi Ramban.

However, there are also those who believe that Arapally is, literally, only a half church because, according to tradition, St. Thomas only established a cross here for 64 families of converted Christian who moved to the area from Mylapore, fearing persecution from rulers. St.Thomas brought them to Travancore crossing the Sahya parvatham (western ghats ) via aruvamozhy pass. When they had arrived at Travancore, the local King of Venad Imayavaramban Chera Ladan received them and offered them land and food. They accepted all the gifts but politely refused to accept vibhuthi and hence they were called ‘vibhudi dhariya chettis’ among the natives. Metropolitan Pulikotil Joseph Mar Dionysius II in his travelogue mentions that he reached Thiruvithamcode, went to a Church belonging to the TharissaiChristians.

The land of Thiruvithancode church was donated by the King of Venad, Nedum Cheralathan. Hence the church was publicly known as Arappalli (Arayan Palli or King’s Church). There are some ancient references to the church such as in the Book of Duarte Barbosa, which talks about ‘Tharusayikkal’ believed to be about Thiruvithamcode.

Among the local people this church is also known as “Thomayar Kovil” from very ancient period. Thomayar Kovil means Temple of St. Thomas. It is a common belief in the locality that it was built by St. Thomas.

Note: The church refers to the community of people rather than the structure.

ISSUES OF POLITICAL ETHICS

Introduction

             

              Mostly people won’t like to involve in politics, because they think it is sewage. The involvement of Christians in politics was less and there are still arguments about it. Every Christian leader should know about politics and political issues. So in this paper we will deal about what is politics, political and related issues.

Politics

What is politics?

              Politics is the process or dynamics of people acquiring the power needed for participation in decision-making on behalf of the total community. It is process of acquiring and exercising power for the governance of a state.

How do we understand politics?

              For the understanding of politics we need to clarify the notions of country, nation, society, state and Government. A country is determined by the geographical boundaries. Nations refers to the people who know themselves as belonging together. Within a nation there may be different societies such as urban, rural, tribal etc., held together by some common concern or interest.

State

              The state is the structure, which provides a well-ordered life for the people, excising coercive authority. Different states have different structures for decision-making and for enforcing discipline. 

Functions of the State

              Traditionally, there was the view that the state’s coercive power is to fight evil or check the consequences of sin. The state certainly needs effective instruments to maintain peace and order against all forms of crime and violence within and from without. The police and the military represent the instruments the states have organized for this purpose. But this negative role is only based on a partial understanding of the function of the state. With advancement of society all over the world the state’s main role is the positive instrument of the common commitment to work together for improving the quality of life of all members of society in all spheres, physical, intellect, cultural and spiritual.

Scholars view on the term ‘State’

             

              Martin Luther regarded the state and the church as two parallel institutions ordained by God or gifts of God for human well-being. These two institutions are also governed by two orders, the order of law and the order of Grace. The state is to provide justice and an ordered life in this world and the church is to meditate the grace of god and to prepare the people for salvation not only in this world but also in the world to come. In Luther’s teaching the two institutions are independent. Calvin taught that they overlap the church and the church has the task of transforming the functioning of the state.

Biblical view on the function of State

              In Rom. 13 while asking people to submit to authorities in power, Paul regards the role of the government as mainly to punish the wrongdoers. It is like a dyke to prevent crime or the consequences of sin. 

Government

              The Government is the instrument for implementing the mandates and programmes of the state. It is through the different arms of the Government that the state maintains law and order.

Role of the Government    

              It is the role of the government not only to prevent law breaking, but also to develop programmes for increased production of resources for better quality and for just distribution of goods and services.

Christians and politics

Should Christians be involved in politics?

                 The Bible tells us that God created from one stock every nation of men to inhabit the whole of earth’s surface and determined their eras in history and the limits of their territory (Acts.17: 26).

                 The Bible testifies to the involvement of the people in political activity. The story of the Exodus is about the politics of Liberation of the people of Israel from slavery in Egypt and their development as a nation. The history of the monarchy in Judah and Israel deals not only with spiritual matters, but also about politics. It was the desire of the people of Israel to be like other nations that led them to adopt monarchy. In I Sam.8 we have an interesting description of what monarchy would mean for the people. Inspite of the warning given by Samuel the people wanted monarchy. The prophets were involved in politics and had much to say about the practice of justice in political life.

What we can learn from Jesus attitude?

                 For a proper understanding of a Christian approach to politics, it is good to begin by asking the above question. He did his ministry in the midst of the Jewish people who were living under Roman suzerainty. It was an authoritarian regime and the people were subjected to a coercive authority. At the same time the Roman rule also maintained peace and gave a sense of security to the people through the enforcement of law and order within the Roman Empire. Rome possessed a large and powerful army, which could stop any invasion by hostile forces and save the unity of the empire. There is no evidence of Jesus saying anything against the Roman rule. There were movements among the Jews against the foreign rule, such as the Zealots, who wanted to overthrow the roman rule by use of force. Jesus did not condemn this movement, but only said those who take the sword shall fall by the sword.

                 When Jesus was asked, “Are we or are we not permitted to pay taxes to the Roman emperor?”(Mt.22: 15-22;Lk.20: 2-26;Mk. 12:13-17) Jesus’ answer was “Pay Caesar what belongs to Caesar and to God what belongs to God”. Before giving his answer Jesus also asked for a coin they had already compromised and accepted the authority of Caesar. But by his answer Jesus made it clear that the authority of the Kingdom of God required. If the people who came to him learnt to give to God what belong to God, then they would know how to resist the authority of the emperor. Jesus did not yield to the desire of the people who wanted to make him king (Jn 19:15). He made it clear that he did not come to establish an earthly kingdom, but to proclaim the kingdom of God. He also reminded Pilate that the ultimate source of all authority was God and that he would have no authority over Jesus unless God had given it (Jn 19:11). Jesus also exposed the wavering and hypocritical attitude of the Jews and gave no support for their hopes of agitation against the Roman government. We cannot conclude from this that Jesus was concerned only about an otherworldly spiritual a kingdom. His teaching was that only through commitment to the ethics of the Kingdom of God, transformation of the earthly kingdoms would happen.

What we learn from Apostles teaching?

                 In the first struggle of the Christians with the government they declared that they should obey God and not man (Acts 4:19). In the apostle teaching there is no call to oppose the authority of the government. We also need to bear in mind the numerical weakness of Christians at that time. Any opposition would have been immediately crushed and made ineffective. Both Peter and Paul in their letters urged the Christians to be subject to the authority of the state and to intercede for those in authority (Rom 13:1-7;Pet 2:13-17). It is also possible that the efficiency of the Roman rule providing peace, security and stability was considered by the apostles as a help to their missionary activities. They also regarded the government as the instrument of God against evil.

How a Christian should respond?

                 The Bible does not ask for an unconditional submission to the state. The basic loyalty of the Christian is to God and his rule. Loyalty to the state or opposition to it is inspired by loyalty to God. Thomas More who went to his death ordered by Henry VIII describing himself as the King’s good servant, but God’s first. Thomas Jefferson wrote, “Rebellion to tyrants was obedience to God”. Dietrich Bonhoeffer, because of his Christian commitment, thought it proper to join the resistance movement in Germany whose objective was to kill Hitler. Resistance to any totalitarianism that exalts Caesar to the position of God was considered as obedience to God.

                 The state is an instrument of the people for life as a community with law and order. In the Bible we have the vision of a state reflecting the sovereignty of God, the kingdom of god. The letter to the Hebrews speaks of our “looking forward to a city with firm foundations, whose architect and builder is God” (Heb 11:10). It is also affirmed that “here we have no lasting city, but we are seekers after the city which is to come (Heb 13:14).

The Church and Indian Constitution

                 In India we have a Constitution, which guarantees equality of freedom and justice to all citizens irrespective of religion, language, race, caste, sex or whatever. India is a secular, socialist, democratic republic. The Indian state is established with a commitment to strive for the good of all. This objective can be realized only with the cooperation to join with others in preserving the secular democratic character of the nation.

                 The Indian constitution safeguards the independence of the church.

  It guarantees to all freedom of religion, freedom to profess, practice and to propagate one’s faith subject to public health and order.

  It guarantees to all citizens freedom from any kind of discrimination on grounds of sex, race, religion, language or place of birth.

  It guarantees freedom of speech top all citizens and also freedom of assembly with out weapons of war, and freedom of association and freedom of movements with out restrictions.

  It guarantees to minorities freedom to establish and maintain, administer institutions of their choice.

Responsibility of the Church

                 It is important to remember that this guarantee is meant not just for the welfare of the minority communities. It was intended to enable the minority communities to participate along with others in the nation building tasks. The institutions established by the minorities are not simply for the benefit of the minorities concerned but for all members of society. The church needs to be vigilant against any attempt to limit its freedom to express fully its religious life including the practice of mission and evangelistic out reach for the proclamation of the gospel and unhindered participation in the secular socio-political life of the nation.

                 The constitution describes the state as secular, democratic and socialist.

Secularism: It has been adopted bearing in mind the pluralistic character of the nation with a diversity of religious, cultural, linguistic and ethnic backgrounds.  Strict adherence to secularism would require the state to be completely neutral in relation to people of all faiths or of no faith. It also implies that the state shall not practice any religion or favor or promote any particular religion nor discriminate against any religion.

Democracy: It is a system with a government of the people, by the people and for the people. It provides freedom for all, for the well being of all. There are certain limitations to freedom. We also need to distinguish between freedom and license. One’s freedom is limited by the ambiguities of human nature; democracy is the best system for a just society. Reinhold Niebuhr says, “Sin makes democracy necessary, Grace makes democracy possible”.

Socialist: The socialist goal is concerned with justice in the economic sphere. From the time of independence our country launched on a programme of National planning with the objective of accomplishing a socialist patter of society. But in our mixed economy has been implemented a bias in favor of the rich rather than the poor. This has become most aggravate in the implementation of the new economic policy of liberalization and globalization.

Commitment to socialism calls for seeking ways of expressing solidarity with those who struggle to remove poverty, unemployment, and the widening unjust gap between the rich and poor.

                 The right to work should be recognized as a fundamental right, making it obligatory for the government to adopt policies and programmes to eradicate unemployment. Equally important is the adoption of a wage policy that would remove the unjust gap between skilled and unskilled labor. A socialist pattern of justice would also require a revolutionary approach in land reform and equitable distribution of wealth, removal of imbalance between the urban and enforcement of equal rights for men and women.

Responsibilities of the citizen

Exercising the Franchise

                 It is important that all citizens participate responsibly in political life and not simply stand aloof as spectators. The most basic form of participation is through the exercise of the franchise or right to vote in election, electing the people who make the decisions. For this every citizen should see that he/she is registered in the voter’s list of his/her constituency.

                 It is also important that Christians join with others determining the guidelines for their choice of candidates or political parties so that the goals of justice in society may be realized.

                 In a parliamentary democracy, which we have adopted, our choice in elections has to be a political party and not just individuals. Therefore, our guidelines have to be applied to the different parties and voters have responsibility to evaluate the platforms, policies and programmes for the basis of which party comes closest to the goals we have in mind. In this task, it is not proper to accept blindly the choice made party. We need to be realistic and bear in mind that no party may perfectly meet all our expectations in the choice of candidates. Also we should concern about the record of the candidates we asked to vote for. The candidate’s record of integrity, his or her commitment to secular democracy, concern for justice for all, solidarity with the people, need to be considered. In a democracy independents also can play a positive role because of their character, ability, leadership and influence in parliament or legislative councils.

Human Rights

                 The concern for human rights is universal. Basically the key to human rights is the right of a person to be authentically human. There are reports of violation of human rights from different parts of the world. In India we are aware of human rights violations by terrorist groups as well as by security personal. Illegal detentions, torture during custody and custodial deaths are examples of human rights violations.

                 Human rights consist essentially of the rights required to be protected or guaranteed in order to be fully human. In every major religion there are teachings relating to the manner in which they are to live their earthly life as an integral part of their quest for salvation. These teachings form basics for concern for human rights.

Biblical teachings on human rights

                 In the Old testaments the teaching of the great 8^th centaury prophets interpreted the righteous of God as demanding the universal protection of human rights for all. This is brought out emphatically in the moral code of the book of Deuteronomy. According to this code every person has the right to life, food, shelter, work, leisure and all that contributes to wholeness of life.

                 In the New Testament the ministry and mission of Jesus sharpened the concern for human rights. Jesus ministry was for the restoring of fullness of human dignity, wholeness, to every one. Human rights consist of physical, intellectual, social, and economic. Political, cultural, religious and spiritual components. 

                 The universal declaration of Human rights adopted by the UN on 10^th December 1948, begins with the declaration that all human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.

                 The Indian constitution also, based on commitment to a secular, socialist, democracy, has the intention of guaranteeing to all its citizens equality of justice and human rights with out distinctions of religion, caste, sex, language, race, or whatever.

                 The reality, however, is that the people of India do not enjoy equality of human rights. The urban and rural poor do not enjoy the same rights as the affluent sections. They are often subjected to different kinds of harassment and deprivation.

Ecumenical concern for Human rights

                 The modern ecumenical movement has highlighted the concern for human rights as integral to the mission of the Church. Vatican II made specific reference to concern for human rights in the documents the church today and the Church in the Modern World. The WCC have expressed concern about widespread violations of human rights and affirmed the calling of the churches to be actively involved in the struggle for human rights.

                 In India the Dalits have been identified and belonging to the category of indigenous peoples and the restoration of their rights is regarded as integral to the concern for human rights.

                  

Bibliography

Chandran, Russell.J; Christian Ethics, ISPCK, Delhi, 1998.

Stephen.P; Introduction to Christian Ethics,

Titus, Harlod H.; Ethics for today; Van Nostrand Company; 1973

Amos responses on Justice and righteousness

INTRODUCTION

Prophecy and prophets play an important role in the life of Israelites, especially during the 8^th century, the responses were written in literary form. Israel prospered economically which tends to the perversion of justice and oppression of poor. People tried to buy God, music and worship was made to defend them from judgment. The prophets of this century speak about the judgment of God, justice and righteousness.

1.      Background of 8^th century

1.1.Political condition

Uzziah king of Judah subdued philistines, Arabians, and Amorites; built strong outposts and fortified Jerusalem with towers (2 Chr 26:9) who also had a strong military with nearly 307500 men. He lived in peace with Jeroboam. There was a generation in Israel which does not know about the bitterness of oppression by enemy or warfare or defeat. [1]The Assriyans experienced a half century of decline during which the Syro Palestinian states were able to pursue their own policies. The dynasty of Jehu reaches its height under Jeroboam II with political success and economic expansion.[2]In the Northern kingdom chaotic situation occurs because of the death of Jeroboam II, the assassination of later three kings and the last was expelled by the Assyrians. Succession of the Assyrian king (Tiglath Pilesar) during the chaotic period.[3]

1.2. Economic condition

Peace and prosperity had returned to the poverty stricken land. Wealth came back to the impoverished people because of good gardening, Husbandry, and cultivation. Commerce had gained as it is in the days of David. Building trade flourished, some people had summer and winter houses. [4] Houses were built with luxurious material like ivories. (Amos 3:15). They did not accrue the wealth in fair means. The rich became richer and the poor became poorer.[5]During this period Israel experienced the period of economic prosperity. Trade was practice on an international scale (Amos 3:9).Commerce became extremely active (Amos 8:5) Deceitful business practices increased profits (Amos 8:5)[6]

1.3.Social condition

Lack of justice and righteousness prevailed in the state.[7] Capitalism quickly led to expropriation of the holdings of the small land owners. The ancient Israelite land rights were superceded by cannanite practice. Slavery for debt took on cruel forms (2:6). The socially underprivileged were exploited and their rights were violated through false witness and bribery of judges (2:7).[8]

1.4.Religious condition

The land of Jehovah became the land of Idols, idol worship was made official. Immorality and sacred prostitution existed in the worship places of the state. Ephods, soothsayers and wizards were in great demand, superstition and witchcraft flourished where ever idolatry flourished.[9]Religion flourished in the nation, People gathered at shrines during festival times (4:4, 5:5) to practice and participate in sacrificial ritual. New music was composed (6:5). Feasts were celebrated with cheerful singing and instrumental music.[10]

2.      Significance of 8^th century prophets

Amos was the first of the group known as the eight century prophets. They are especially important because

 i. Their words are preserved for us in detail than the words of earlier preachers.

ii. Their words have great power, and are often in the form of memorable poetry

iii. Their words show that they had deep understanding of the ways of God and his will for men.

iv. Their words show also that they had an insight into the hearts and minds of the Israelites at that time.

v. The prophets believed that God is active in the world.

vi. They are holy men who spoke with power, the word holy means that they are fully committed to the service of God. [11]

3.      Personal history of Amos

Amos is from the little town of Tekoa about six miles south of Bethlehem in the Judean hills during eighth-century and his contemporaries were Hosea and Micah. Amos made his entrance into the kingdom of Israel with a message of Judgment bore witness to Yahweh’s grace and mercy. Amos was called to minister in one of the flourishing urban centers made wicked by Jeroboam I. His native land under Judean rival, Rehoboam’s fortress cities and it was the place where Jehoshapat defeated Ammonites, Moabites and Edomites. Through Amos, Hebrew prophecy reached a new phenomenon. The ethical personality of Hebrew religion was included in his prophecies.

He was a shepherd, but some scholars differ from this opinion. It is from the Biblical evidence he was a sheepherder. However he was also a pincher or piercer of figs.[12] The word of Amos portrays that he was not a prophet or son of a prophet, but a herdsman and piercer of sycamore figs (7:14ff).  Scholars have argued that Amos disclaims of connection with prophetic office and in fact was repudiating it as an instrument of Yahweh’s revelation.[13] He did not belong to a priestly or prophetic family (7.14), he came for this vocation because he experienced the calling of God. He was a powerful preacher; his language was vivid, full of epigrams and brief word pictures. He was not shy about using strong words when he felt that they were needed. He called the rich women of Samaria “You cows of Bashan” (4:1). He did not apologize for his message, or try to make his words pleasing to his hearers. His message was clear and used his own experience in the country side to illustrate his teaching 3:4-5, but not an ignorant peasant. He travelled to the market place to sell his wool and fruit, and met travelers from other countries. He knew about the history of Philistines and Syrians, the annual flooding of the River Nile.[14]

4.      Time of Amos

Amos prophesized during the reigns of Uzziah of Judah and Jeroboam of Israel and there is a mention of earthquake (1:1). The period of Amos differs in different scholars view, According to Edwin. R. Thiele the reign of Jeroboam was 782-753 B.C and the reign of Uzziah in Israel was dated as 767-740 B.C. therefore the ministry of Amos had to occur between 767-753 B.C of more than sixteen years.

Richard S. Cripps indicates a date before the rise of Tiglath-pileser III (744B.C). William Rainey Harpers seems to be on a safer ground by suggesting a range of years, 765-750. Hans Walter Wolff dated Amos activity about 760. But according to the solar eclipse (Amos 8:9) that occurred in 763 B.C recorded in Assyrian records his prophecy occurred between 767-763 B.C.[15]

Generally Amos was ministering Jeroboam II was the king in Northern Israel (793-753 BC) Uzziah was ruling over Judah.  Jeroboam II was the most powerful king in Northern Israel.  During his time the country enjoyed peace and rest because there was no external threat.  He was very successful in all his military campaigns.  He restored the border of Israel from Hamath to the sea of Arabah (2Kings 14:25).  Economically also the nation was very prosperous.  Judah also experienced peace and prosperity at this time.

As a result of the economic prosperity people became proud, selfish, greedy and luxurious.   The rich became richer and the poor became poorer.  Oppression was very common along with moral and spiritual decay.  It was during this time God commissioned Amos to go to Bethel to preach against the transgressions and iniquities of the people and warn them about coming judgment.  But people were sunk in the bottom of corruption and they were complacent.  Therefore the words of the simple prophet from Tekoa did not bring any fruit.  They ignored him, but later the nation experienced the terrible judgment of God.  Northern Israel fell into the hands of Assyrians.

His fearless preaching against Israel in Bethel had aroused Amaziah the apostate high priest to denounce (to speak against) him to king Jeroboam II. The nation was going through a spiritual decay.  There was idolatry luxurious living, immorality etc.[16]

5. Message of Amos: Amos has been called the prophet of righteousness and social justice because of his bold preaching against moral and religious decay as well the social injustice.[17] The great proclamation at the beginning of this prophecy (1:2) sets the tone of Amos’ message. The Lord’s voice, like the roar of a lion, will be heard in judgment from Zion. The prophet reveals the spiritual corruption under the religious formalism and material prosperity of the time (5:12, 21). He castigates the leaders for the deterioration of social justice and morality (2:7, 8) and points out their total disregard of human rights and personality (2:6). He insists that God’s people must seek the Lord and repent, and establish justice if they are to live (5:14, 15). But because the people of Israel will not repent, there is nothing left for them but destruction (9:1-8). The Day of the Lord will be an assertion of the claims of God’s moral character upon those who have repudiated him. When this is recognized, there will be established the glory of the promised Davidic kingdom; and that day is inevitable (9:11-15). The message of Amos is in large measure a “cry for justice.”[18]

5.1 Amos speaks about Yahweh: Amos says that Yahweh is at work with humanity. He speaks neither of Yahweh’s justice or his faithfulness, nor of his covenant or his law, nor once does Amos use any fixed expression to say that Yahweh is “Israel’s God.” Israel should worship God with deep sense of emotion and reverence. No Baal competes with Yahweh for Israel’s affections as we find in the situation to be in Hosea. But neither is there a god apart from Yahweh responsible for foreign nations (Am. 1:3-8, 13-15; 2:1-3; 3:2; 9:7). Thus Amos offers no polemic against any cult of foreign gods. That Yahweh is the only God of Israel and of the world of nations and is not a theme of his message but its self-evident presupposition. Amos presents the message of Yahweh by affirming that Yahweh Himself intervenes in the situation. By using first person speech form Amos Communicates the message of Yahweh thus: “I will turn my hand against” (1:8); “I will wreck” (3:15); “I will pass through your midst” (5:17b); “I will send you into exile” (5:27); “I will deliver up” (6:8) etc.[19]

5.2 The exploitation of the Poor and his social criticism: In his prophecies Amos develops what the visions only suggest: the guilt of Israel’s leaders as the reason for the downfall (2:1-16).

5.2.1 Impossible meaningful living: - The sale of men and women is condemned a gross in humanity for modern readers. In fact the sale of men and women was permitted according to ancient oriental and Israelite law, if debts could not otherwise be paid. Amos does not oppose the existing law in principle as such and the unreasonable seizure of clothing as security, or of wine from a debtor, it was the sign of fatal tendency in Contemporary society. Amos here is concerned not with individual events, but with their background and consequences.[20]

5.2.2 Ruling class and their luxurious life: - (Amos 4:1-3) Amos sharply brings out his social criticism on Israel and her condition. The passage talks about a heedless, luxurious life led by an exploitative ruling class and this is the picture of the capital city of Samaria. He calls the elegant ladies as ‘caws’- cows of Bashan, which were a much valued breed of cattle at that time. Again Amos puts the relation between people and land in the foreground. The women will not be raped or killed, but they will be driven out of the land that nourishes them.[21]

5.2.3 Injustice in tax payment: - In 5:11f Amos talks about the injustice in the realm of tax payment.[22]In the gate way of township adult men of the community assembled and imposed taxes on local community. They were privileged to take part in cultic ceremonies, to bear arms, to pronounce judgment on capital crimes. The state holds democratic constitution, but influential families gained upper hand. They imposed heavy taxes on small economic weak families.[23]

5.3 Religion as Cult: Amos is a religious figure; and part of his message is that ‘religion’ is not to be confused with ‘cult’, that ‘being religious’ involves more than observing certain specifically religious (cultic) practices. The prophet condemns the religious place and ceremonies of his people. Amos dares to express a wholesale rejection of cultic offerings in Yahweh’s name (Am.5:21ff). The sanctuaries of Bethel and Gilgal are named in horrifying terms. Amos’ listeners believed that they will find Yahweh and life there. These places are considered to sacral than any other in the northern Kingdom. But this places which Amos declared were the breeding places of sacrilege. Amos turns this assurance upside down by proclaiming the downfall of Gilgal and Bethel. Amos attacked the sacrificial meals and the sanctuaries because this indulgent luxury of the rich was at the expense of the poor person (6:1-7).[24]He encourages the people for a sincere search for Yahweh(5:14f), but a rite repentance which does not require the splendor of ceremonies in Bethel and Gilgal. [25]

5.4 Justice and Righteousness: Justice and righteousness (Mispat and Sedaqa) are the two key words used by Amos in his preaching. In the midst of these social crimes Amos cried “Let justice roll down like waters and righteousness like an overflowing stream (5:24). He noted that it is justice and righteousness not cultic ritual alone brings forth the divine salvific waters. [26] They represent the highest value of human behavior which is totally lacking. Because these values have been lost, Yahweh is irritated against Bethel and Gilgal.

5.5 The down fall of the neighbouring nations: When Yahweh wants to bring to an end the wickedness of Israel, Amos takes up all the neighboring peoples one after another, the Philistines, the Phoenicians, the Edomites, the Ammonites, Moab. Yahweh will send a cleansing, destroying fire on them and all that Amos said about Israel’s neighbors came to its fulfillment. For Amos, the foreign nations are guilty before Yahweh because they have mistreated weaker people (1:3, 6, 13; 2:1). Amos’ message has two important and specific elements: (i) Amos testifies that Yahweh alone is the God of Israel as well as the nations; the origin and future of both are freely determined by him; (ii) Amos equalizes nations with Israel and Israel with nations.[27]

Conclusion

The situation of India rightly suit to the eighth century, the rich became richer and poor became poorer because of industrialization, privatization and globalization.  We cannot deny that industrialization, privatization and globalization will bring economic prosperity in our land but due to industrialization the agricultural lands are bought from peasants with low value, so it disturb their economy and destroy the valuable land (e.g Singur land in West Bengal).The cultivable land of peasants has been used for the distribution of LPG gas pipe line and oil which disrupt the land. Recently the government has allowed a private company to take Methane on the banks of Cauvery delta which also affects peasants and land, which is a gift of God. By privatization the poor workers lost their jobs and some are given only very few wages. Globalization allows multinational companies to open their retail shops in all parts of the world which displease the small scale retailers; it diminishes the role of small scale industries in India. On the whole all these three factors are useful only for rich people (industrialists, politicians, etc.) while the poor are the victims.

Injustice exists in our state and in church which were not bothered by today’s prophets. Women and Dalits are the sufferers of injustice both in the state and in church. Young girls and women are raped inside the church and in the streets of India (a young girl was raped by a catholic father, Delhi gang rape, and many others). Huge amount of money had been looted in church and in our state (2G scam, Coalgate scam, Tsunami scam etc). Most of the Politicians, Leaders of political parties, Bishops, leaders and Moderators in our society are corrupted; some of them are condemned by court. The natural calamities such as Tsunami, flood, earthquake etc brought enormous money for the church and for the state where most of it was plundered.

Amos criticized about the social disorder in Israel, which is a relevant issue of our nation. The rich people in our nation are not concerned about others. The rich are exempted from tax payment and are given special privileges, but the poor and middle class are imposed with taxes(land tax, house tax, income tax, Vat, service tax, taxes from transportation, fuels etc.) and surely God is in our midst and there will be God’s judgment which reorders our society.  

The emphasis which Amos lays on God’s demand for justice in the midst of an unjust society is a valuable reminder to us that the Church cannot ignore social questions if she is to be true to the tradition of the prophets of Israel. The church and the state need prophets of eighth century to create justice and righteousness.

Bibliography

 Auld, A.G. Amos England: JSOT Press, 1986.

Chappell, clovis G. And the prophets. New York: Abingdon press.

Laetsch , Theo.  Bible commentary  The Minor Prophets.  Missouri: Concordia publishing House, 1956.

Noel Freedman, David. The Anchor Bible Dictionary. Newyork: Double Day Publications, 1992, Vol.I

Pfeiffer, Charles F.: The Wycliffe Bible Commentary : Old Testament. Chicago : Moody Press, 1962.

Reddit, Paul. Introduction to the prophets. Cambridge: William B. Eerdmans publishing    company,2008.

Soggin,  Alberto  J.The Prophet Amos .London: SCM Press Ltd, 1987.

Smith, Powis J.M. The prophets and their times. Chicago: The university of Chicago press, 1925.

Thorogood, Bernard . A guide to the book of Amos, New Delhi, ISPCK, 1973.

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[1] Theo. Laetsch, Bible commentary The Minor Prophets( Missouri: Concordia publishing House, 1956), 10

[2] Duraiswamy, study notes on Life and ministry of prophets

[3] Duraiswamy, study notes on Life and ministry of prophets

[4] Theo. Laetsch,op.cit., 12

[5] Ibid., 13

[6] Duraiswamy, “unpublished’ study notes on Life and ministry of prophets

[7] Theo. Laetsch, op.cit., 13

[8] Duraiswamy, “unpublished” study notes on Life and ministry of prophets

[9] Duraiswamy, “unpublished” study notes on Life and ministry of prophets

[10] Duraiswamy, “unpublished” study notes on Life and ministry of prophets

[11] Bernard thorogood, A guide to the book of Amos (New Delhi: ISPCK, 1973), 7-8.

[12] Hassell Bullock, An intorducton to the old testament Prophetic book ( Chicago: Moody Publishers,1986), 64-65.

[13] William Sanford Laser, David Allan Hubbard and Fredric WM Bush, Old testament Survey (Michigan, William B. Eerdmans publishing company,1982), 319-320.

[14] Bernard thorogood, op.cit., 9.

[15] Hassell Bullock, op.cit., 70-72.

[16] Paul Reddit, Introduction to the prophets (Cambridge: William B. Eerdmans publishing company, 2008), 243.

[17] Ibid., 244.

[18] Charles F Pfeiffer.: The Wycliffe Bible Commentary: Old Testament. (Chicago : Moody Press, 1962).

[19]Paul Reddit Ibid., 245.

[20] A. G. Auld, Amos (England: JSOT Press, 1986),pp.73-75

[21] A. G. Auld, Amos (England: JSOT Press, 1986),pp.73-75.

[22] Duraiswamy, “unpublished” study notes on Life and ministry of prophets

[23] Duraiswamy, “unpublished” study notes on Life and ministry of prophets

[24] A. G. Auld, Amos, op cit., p. 79.

[25] Duraiswamy, “unpublished’ study notes on Life and ministry of prophets

[26] David Noel Freedman. The Anchor Bible Dictionary ( Newyork: Double Day Publications, 1992),Vol.I ,.206.

[27] J. Alberto Soggin, The Prophet Amos (London: SCM Press Ltd, 1987), p.67-80.