Indigenization
including the emergence of independent movements such as that of Bhakt
singh, Subba Rao, The Hindu Church of Lord Jesus at Mookupeeri, Trinelvelly, National church of Madras (
Parani Andi), Bengal Christo Samaj, Ashram movement theology, worship
INTRODUCTION
Christianity in India
is as old as Christianity itself; as such the process of indigenization has an
old long history. There are various attempts made to understand Christianity
from a Hindu perspective or to indigenize Christianity. It is because
Christianity is considered as western religion, socio-cultural and religious
situations in India, because of missionary’s domination, the impact of re
thinkers to understand Christ from Indian perspective etc. When talking about
indigenization we can’t forget Robert De Nobili the ‘father’ of Ashram
movement, who struggled to spread the gospel in the native land according to
their traditions and customs. Even though it failed due to various reasons but
the effort should be appreciated which paved way for later efforts. Sadhu
Sunder Singh said that the water of life should be given in an Indian cup. So
these led to formation of several independent movements. This paper deals with
some of the independent movements which labor for developing indigenized
Christianity.
1.
BAKHT SINGH
1.1.
Early life:- Bakht singh was a sikh born on 6th
June,1903 at Joya, a tiny village in Punjab province of undivided India. His
parents were Hindus for certain reasons the first born was dedicated to the
Sikh religion, and all Sikhs (disciples) are Singhs (Lion-hearted). [1]
1.2. Education and conversion: -
Bakht studied up to seven years in a mission school at Sargodha, then studied
for five years at boarding school at Gujranwala. On being awarded a Bible in
passing intermediate exam, he tore it. He got his B.A from Government College
at Lahore. He was intended to work as a doctor but to help his father in his
factory he studied Engineering at England. As a special tour to Canada he
visited it and had an opportunity to be converted to Christianity. He first got
the experience of Holy Spirit on August 10 1928 in a Sunday service at ship
journey. Then returned to India on February 6, 1932 and ministered as
Evangelist and preached the word of God in parts of India and in foreign
nations also.[2]
1.3. Church planting:
- Later he planted churches where he has ministered which turned the
conventional practice upside down. Because the church is too much worldliness
and it should be revived. He emphasized that the church should be after God’s
pattern. He taught on the basis of Bible, where men can find the heavenly
plan’s for them. 80 He had an intention to plant churches because he found
there were only scripture reading and fellowship in America. Bakht thought that
the believers grow spiritually and attain maturity.[3]
1.4. Theology: -
Bakht emphasis on priest hood, which Paul’s uses in his letters. For him all
are called to be priest and they should do the responsibilities of priest, in
other words the Believer’s priest hood.[4]
1.5. Pattern of worship service in
the church: - The order of worship was founded on
the basis of Bible and prayer. On Sundays when people gather they started with
singing as in the Old Testament days. After singing each one should worship
individually, teach them how to partake in Lord’s Supper. They should worthily
partake in it, followed by the third message, offering and end with
Benediction. This was first started in Jehovah Shammah in Madras 1941 which
also became the pattern of Brother Bakht Singh’s Fellowship.[5]
1.5.1. Baptism: -
Bakht thought that there should be baptism since people will think we are
cunning, but entry into church is through Baptism after repentance. It is the
condition for joining the church. He will not baptize a child or person until
he or she believes in Christ, a big no child baptism is his sign board.[6] Laying of hand for baptism is
practiced, no water baptism is followed.[7]
1.5.2.
Worship and breaking of bread: - Worship forms a very
important part of Brother Bakht Sngh’s Fellowship meeting. It is done before
partaking in the Lord’s Supper. Generally in worship message is delivered and
then it is followed by worship. Also adoration and praises to God alone. He
says if there is no worship there will be no growth.[8]
Breaking
of bread is considered as the reminder of Lord Jesus, death for sins but for
being watchful for his second coming. He gave thanks giving for the Bread and
wine and closed with prayer. Once he served it with bread and lime juice since
they were at a hill. He placed the Lord’s Supper at the middle of the worship
service to show unity and equality of believers in Christ.[9]
1.5.3. Offerings: -
Offerings causes continued debates among Christians. Bakht refused to preach at
a particular church because money was not collected for the purpose. The reason
he gave was salvation is a free gift, and so no money should be collected. He
did not stretch out his palm for money, no appeal for money or collections was
allowed. He had said that offerings were made by god’s children out of
gratitude to him, particularly born again should bring their offerings into the
church building. Before God’s children leave they put their offerings into a
box placed inside the church building. The qualities of born again cannot be
seen outwardly, because it is the condition of heart.[10]
1.5.4. Festivals: -
The Holy convocations observed in the Assemblies of Brother Bakht Singh are
based on the 23rd chapter of the Book of Leviticus, which describes
the seven feasts celebrated by Israel. They are Passover, unleavened bread,
feasts of first fruit, feasts of weeks, Pentecost, feast of trumpets and the
feast of the Day of Atonement. It was followed based on a vision that occurred
to him.[11]
1.6.
Indigenization of the New Testament principles in the local church
Bakht believed in only
one church which is the church of the Lord Jesus Christ as expressed locally,
nationally and internationally. He had said that there is no Indian church of
Chinese church or American church, but only one universal church, which is the
church of the Lord Jesus Christ. He believed Christ can build His church and
our responsibility is to assist Him in obedience, with oneness, equality of all
believers and spiritual.[12]
Indigenization is not
Indianisation, it simply means applying the New Testament principles of the
church with in the cultural background of the people without diluting God’s
word. It should be self supporting, self governing, and self propagating
fellowships under the Headship, Lordship and Kingship of Lord Jesus Christ. The
idea of Sadhu Sunder Singh was followed in his church. T.E Koshy says Bakht
Singh’s ministry is a phenomenal example of contextualization in its earliest
days without compromising the word of God. He gave the gospel in an Indian cup;
people sat on floors with their chappals and shoes off, singing Indian songs
with Indian instruments. His messages were long, simple, filled with
scriptures, explanation and stories.[13]
2.
SUBBA RAO
2.1. Earlife and education:-
Kalagara Subba Rao was born into a Kamma ("clean" caste) agricultural
family in the Godavari district of Andhra Pradesh around the year 1912. His
actual birthplace, where he also spent his early years, was his maternal
uncle's home in Gosala in Krishna district. His education was sporadic due to
habits of skipping school in favor of sport and mischief making. From an early
age Subba Rao rebelled against the Hindu religion. Some of Subba Rao's early mischief was
related to his rejection of religion. He stole from temples to buy cigarettes
and kicked idols to see if it was true that doing so made one blind. At sixteen
years of age he was sent to Calcutta and passed his matriculation there. His
bad habits caused him to fail his intermediate examination in Rajahmundry, but
back in Calcutta he passed that and earned a B. A. with first class honors in
the City College in 1930. From 1930 to
1935 Subba Rao wandered aimlessly like a Vagabond, lost all his parental
property and the death of a beloved sister affected him. Subba Rao asked himself
why people mourn when they also will soon die.
In 1935 he completed his B. T. degree and got a teaching job in Krishna
District. Subba Rao married Srimatti
Nagendramma in 1937 they had no children. In 1939 he wrote a Telugu booklet on
international conditions and was later appointed a lecturer and publicity
writer of the National War Front. In
this regard he was awarded the title Rao Saheb. He was an atheist, opposed to
religion and especially to sadhus and priests. He was living a reckless life,
and his impertinent ways ruined his health.
Subba Rao had a nervous breakdown and prospects for a full recovery were
not good. He retired to Munipalle, expecting never to fully recover. [14]
2.2.
His contributions and methods of indigenization:
- A contemporary leader of a Hindu Christian Movement well had known for his
devotional meetings, as divine healer and for his critical views on
institutional church. He was an atheist and receives Christ by vision from
Christ in the year 1942. Along with the vision he got the gift of spiritual
healing. He was not baptized nor a member of any local church which is
hindrance to many people to know Christ. Subba Rao feels that those who receive
baptism by spirit, water baptism is meaningless and a harmful ceremony. He has
not written comprehensive works, but some of the songs he sang in Telegu with
tambura are translated and published.[15]
K. Subba Rao wrote 34 songs that remain central to
the life of his followers. A few booklets of his teachings have been published
at times, but none are in print at the current time and always the songs were
the primary vehicle by which he taught. Many hermeneutical questions arise when
reading through the songs of Subba Rao.
There seem to be numerous internal tensions in the message conveyed.
There are also clear tensions between the teachings of the songs and the
practices of his life and ministry.[16]
2.3. Contextualization
Subba Rao developed a truly contextual ministry; in a
country where the name of Christ is inevitably linked with foreign ways (to the
dismay and disgust of Hindus) it is refreshing indeed to come across a servant
of Christ who functioned acceptably within Hindu society. Many Christians struggled and even stumbled
due to their inability to fit Subba Rao into any existing Christian framework.
He was not a preacher or pastor, and not really an evangelist either. He had a
prophetic role in his rebukes, but kept up a primary identity with the Hindu
world that was inexplicable to many. But the fact that Subba Rao appeared more
Hindu than Christian is a positive rather than negative point. He is in the tradition of the apostle Paul,
who appeared more Gentile than Jewish (cf. 1 Cor. 9:19-23). In fact, in the
complexity of communal religiosity in India it is this issue of basic identity
that is definitive for contextualization or inculturation. However much the
existing churches or their representatives adopt Hindu terms and forms, they
cannot be truly contextual as long as they are understood to be outside the
Hindu community and inside the Christian community. Subba Rao carried out in
practice what has been an interesting theoretical discussion in Indian
Christian circles. He completely rejected the pattern of the church as a
separate sociological community, and demonstrated that new patterns of “church”
are indeed viable. The central issue here is his rejection of sociological
conversion: We cannot comprehend why these false “Ambassadors” who are fully
attached to the world, should insist on a ceremonial bath and the removal of bottu
and juttu (mark on the forehead and growth of long hair) as the only
way to salvation for us to follow as your disciples. We cannot understand how a
change of our ancestral names can entitle us to heaven. How can these obstruct
us in our passage to heaven? Subba Rao's successful rejection of the church as
a separate sociological community which insists that minor cultural practices
be adopted as a badge of membership, in favor of integration with existing
society and maintenance of cultural identity and practices, is his most
striking contribution to Indian theological and missiological debate. It is
especially noteworthy that he remained very much a Kamma caste leader and drew
his strongest following from that group, yet without any trace of caste-exclusiveness.[17]
3.
THE HINDU CHURCH OF LORD JESUS
Arumai
Nayakam Sattampillai (1823–1918), known popularly as Arumainayagam
Sattampillai, a Tamil convert of Anglican church, was a catechist and the
founder of first indigeneous and independent Hindu Church of Lord Jesus,
rejecting Western missionaries domination for the first time in the history of
Indian subcontinent -- This subversion paved the way - to develop a fusion
model of Hindu-Christian religion, free from European missionaries interference
- and also, inspired Indian national movement, largely centered around Bengal
and Madras Presidency to fight against Western dominated Institutionalized
church leading to separation of Christ from Church and Indianization of
Christianity—to express and interpret Christianity and Biblical text in Indian
context—socially, culturally, and religiously.[18]
3.1.
Life history:- A.N.Sattampillai was educated at
missionary schools run by Society for the Propagation of the
Gospel (SPG), an Anglican missionary society
and also known by name Society for the
Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts—presently known
by name United Society for
the Propagation of the Gospel (USPG) from 1996.
He was trained at a seminary run
by SPG. He studied Hebrew and Greek languages,
and was considered as a great intellect winning several prizes as a seminarian.
He acquired the title Sattampillai, as a young man for being the
monitor or classroom student leader, at the SPG seminary in Sawyerpuram.
He worked in missionary school and was associated with
missionaries as a Catechist. He was a staunch Christian and
acquired considerable knowledge of Christian history andBiblical literature—both Old Testament and New Testament[19]
3.2.
Reasons for indigenous Church [20]
§ Degrading
of Shanars and the controversy between Caldwell and sattampilai along with the
authorities of Shanars.
§ Rejection
of western manners and customs
§ Dismissal
of A.T.Sattampillai from the position of catechist
§ The
monopoly and domination of western missionaries in Indian Churches
§ Condemning or portraying Indian indigenous religious
practices as inferior and targeted converts for alleged anti-white[Europeans]
sentiments
§ In
Caldwell's view, the religion followed by Shanar community, who were not yet
converted, was a 'school of immorality'
§ The
indigenous people suspected western Christianity as denationalizing influence
§ obnoxious
missionary with a low opinion on indigenous converts
§ Theological
controversies with missionaries, Sattampillai objected the placing of cross on
the altar,
which he considered as against the biblical injunction
and interpreted as a sign of idolatry.
3.3.
Formation of indigenous Church:- Under these circumstances
and context with domineering mentality of Western missionaries against heathens,
a desire arose in Arumainayagam Sattampillai to re-cast Christianity into a
native and national, social and cultural framework, to be interpreted as Hindu.
It is also believed that, as Sattam Pillai was not willing to go by the British
custom way of worship service, started to garner likeminded believers and
worship the Trinity in
an Indian traditional way; accordingly, Sattampillai revolted against the
Western superior mindset over Indian Christians, broke out from SPG, and
established "Hindu church of Lord Jesus", also known as "Indian
church of the only Savior," in 1857 at Prakasapuram(present Pragasapuram),
Tirunelveli district. He established his
new church Hindu church of Lord Jesus, with Hindu-Christian
religion as its faith, to subvert the missionary authority and denounced
Western Christianity as corrupt and inauthentic—he interepreted Hindu as a
geographical term[living across Indus river
and/or in social and cultural context], rather than in religious context;
furthermore, he looks to have interpreted the Hindu customs as Indian
customs—Over the period, the converted Christians in India started to interpret
and express Christianity by employing their innate social, religious, and
cultural categories.[21]
3.4.
Revolt against Westerner’s:- The year [1857] is
significant, as uprising against British Raj was already rising in Northern India – Indian Rebellion of 1857.
Suttampillai revolted against Western dominance in Indian churches using a
two-fold strategy; one, by separating Christ from Church and accommodating
native traditions and customs into Christianity, he succeeded in undermining
the authority of Western missionaries; two, he appropriated Hebrew scriptures and
Judaism customs into the Church supporting Old Testament than New Testament as
an antidote against the Western missionaries who were moving towards New
Testament with British Raj support.[22]
The church rejected
from their system everything that they perceived as savour of a European
origin. They cut completely from all European help in money and influence, as
if there were no longer any Europeans in the country. Sattampillai also seems
to have claimed that Hindu cultural practices are similar to the Jewish
cultural practices. His interpretations and inclusive approach, made him to
incorporate[accommodate] "presumed Indian cultures as Hindu culture"
into his movement such as prostration,
sacrifice, use of frankincense,
folding their hands while praying deities, using unfermented grape-juice
instead of wine, and sitting on the floor. In the rituals of the Church, Old Testament ritualistic
practices such as "ritual impurities attributed to women" were also
practiced in this church, as similar practices were also found in Indian
[Hindu] religious rituals. Unlike Anglican church using
bell, they use trumpet. A trumpet blast from the church tower summoned the
faithful to worship, and followers washed their hands and feet before entering
the sanctuary, where they punctuated the service with
bodily prostration. The worship is usually held on Saturday Sabbath.
People belonging to this church don't work on Saturday. Food for Saturday is
made before 6 pm on Friday. They use Jewish calendar to
celebrate feast days as followed in Old Testament days. He denied the efficacy
of infant baptism and abandoned the idea of an ordained ministry,
declaring that, anyone might become a minister of the Gospel.[23]
4.
NATIONAL CHURCH OF MADRAS
4.1.
Founder and his early life, education, formation of church: -
The founder of “The National Church of Madras” was an Indian doctor, S. Parani
Andi or Pulney Andy. He was born in Thrichnopoly in 1831, trained as doctor at
Madras and went to England as first Indian student to register for British
Medical College. There he became a Christian, and returned to Travancore, where
he was baptized by a Basel missionary in Mangalore. However he did not join in any church. In the
seventies he settled in Madras and began to work of his favorite idea: a
National Church in India.7 It was based on the manifesto of Liberal theology in
England. In 1885 he presented his plans to a group of lay people mostly
students and government officials, and after a period of discussion and
consideration the church was formed on 12th September 1886.[24]
4.2. Aims and practices
[25]
o
To gather all Indian Christians into one
self -supporting and self governing church.
o
Since Christianity was Asiatic in origin
it is not necessary to follow any denominations which was formed based on the
political revolutions and dissensions in Europe.
o
There is no need of western creed or
confession, the New Testament is the sole guide in matter of faith and
doctrine.
o
No sacraments were practiced, voluntary
pastors were ordained and the church was built in the full sense of the word.
o
The members were not compelled to with
draw from their old church.
o
This church was influenced by Brahmo
Samaj and Christo samaj.
o
Later this church was hindered by Indian
community because of the influence of western missionaries and funding. It has
the biggest church in Madras which is larger than Christo samaj in Calcutta.
o
In 893 Parani Andi appealed to all
missionaries to support the plan for a National church. The appeal was signed
by 146 persons, however there was no efforts taken by the missionaries to form
National church because most of them dependent economically upon the missions.
4.3. His contributions and death: -
Andy
also held the post of editor of the newspaper Eastern Star and was a
driving force behind the establishment of the masonic lodge,
Lodge Carnatic. Established in 1883, the Carnatic Lodge of which Andy was the
second Master, was the first lodge with a primarily Indian membership. Chennai Egmore railway
station was built in 1900 on land purchased from him by the South Indian Railway.
He died at the age of 77 on September 1909.[26]
5.
BENGAL CHRISTO SAMAJ
The desire among Indian
Christians to have their own organization could not be suppressed and in 1868 a
number of educated Christians formed The Bengal Christian Association for the Promotion
of Christian truth and Godliness and the projection of the Rights of Indian
Christians.[27]
5.1. Founder: -
Kali Charan Banerjee born in 1858 as the son of a Bengali Kulin Brahmin and
studied at Alexander Duff’s College received his B.A degree in 1863. He became
a Christian in the year 1864, passed law in 1870 and taught law in Duff’s
College for some years. In 1870 he and others started a news paper “The Bengal
Herald” later called “The Indian Christian Herald”. The views of the paper are
that we are Hindu Christian, as thoroughly Hindu as Christian.3 The national
spirit was proved by several articles which demanded independence for the
Church Bengal or which argued for Hindu customs to be retained in, or modified
for, use in the Christian worship. If Christianity should develop freely and
naturally in Bengal, it should be removed from ‘the hot- house of European
church organization and planted in the genial soil of Bengali models of thought
and feeling’ it was stated.[28]
Banerjee along with J.G Shome organized conferences and pioneers in Samaj.
5.2.
Causes
Ø They
criticized the missionaries for denationalizing Indian Christians and making
them into compound Christians and transferred the theological and
ecclesiastical differences of the west to India, and dividing them into
numerous denominations.[29]
Ø They
demanded indigenous forms of worship.
Ø For
an Independent church a plan was suggested, a voluntary pastors who live by
secular work, which is the only way to self support.
Ø This
proposal did not fit in the western pattern of the ministry but helps to
eliminate the distinction between clergy and laity.
Ø The
worship should be done by lay people with indigenous methods.
Ø In
1887 they formed The Calcutta Christo Samaj.[30]
5.3. Aim:
- To propagate Christian truth, promote Christian union, to gather all Indian
Christians with in it, and to eliminate denominations. They taught new creed
with broadest base.[31]
5.4. Worship: -
They met weekly in a private home for common worship, led by members in turn,
both men and women. No pastor and no distinction between laity and clergy. They
practiced baptism by lay people. Communion was also celebrated in different
form and no fixed liturgy was followed.[32]
5.5. Kali Banerjee and mission
conference: - The founder emphasized in the missionary
conference that the missionaries should change their attitude. As Paul had
become all things to all men, they must live as poor sannyasins or gurus and
study Hinduism to know the germs of truth.[33]
5.6. Dissolve of Samaj: -
The missionaries oppose this because they will lose educated people from
church. In response to Apostles creed it was impossible to wipe the history of
church. 6 The other reason was most of the evangelist, teachers and pastors and
the poorer section of the Christian community financially dependent on
missionaries. So the lay people did not support samaj, and Samaj holds educated
lay people who were financially independent. After seven years of existence the
Christo Samaj was dissolved, in 1894. [34]
6.
ASHRAM MOVEMENT
6.1.
Ashrama: - During the vedic age elderly Aryans entrusted the
family burden to their sons and restored to the forests with their wives to
contemplate on the major issues of life. They lived in huts, lived on fruits
and vegetables. These hermitages were called as ‘Ashramas’, an Ashrama is a
house of peace, response and tranquility.[35]
By the end of 6th century A.D the Ashramas languished and were never
thought as part of Hindu dharma. After a several break it came into life in a
strange and unexpected manner. Due to the impact of Western civilization the
Indian culture was drifted and lost its value. In such a chaotic situation
India got hold of the Ashrama ideal as remedy to regain its cultural values. [36]
6.2 Modern Ashramas in India: -
Modern Ashramas engaged in educational field, Tagore’s ‘Shantiniketan’ and
Gandhiji’s Sabarmathi Ashram are shining examples. The growth of Ashramas among
India Christians was an unexpected one during this age. The process of
naturalization of Christianity is marked by appropriation of well tested
institutions of Hinduism for the embodiment of the spirit of Christ. Through
them, Jesus speaks to the Hindu in a language intelligible to him.[37]
6.3
Christian Ashramas, theology, worship.
6.3.1
Christian Ashramas:- Christian Ashramas are of recent growth
which demonstrates that Christ can conquer race, religion, color and culture
which will unite people.First came the Christian sanyasi Sadhu Sunder Singh,
then the Christhukula Ashrama, Tirupattur, North Arcot Dist, Tamil Nadu,
Theosophical society at Madras founded by Dr. Annie Besant are outstanding
Ashramas in India. The conspicuous feature of Christhukula Ashrama is the
‘Japalaya’ (Place of worship) built on the model of a Hindu temple, a peaceful
haven for prayer, meditation and reading. The Asramites and non Christians spontaneously
join here in worship; wonderful are the ways of the providence. It discovers
that to ‘live Christ is to preach Christ’. The lesson of religious history of
India has been that a religious life in its own missionary. Christian Ashramas
have brought into life a precious heritage of our past which was neglected. In
reviving the Ashrama ideal the Christian is infusing into Hinduism the spirit
of Christ.[38]
6.3.2
Theology and worship: - In a Christian Ashrama, Christ is
offered to the non-Christians in their solemn and spiritual moments and not
thrown from outside. It also encourages worship by Christians and Hindus. In an
Ashrama an Indian Christian pays his tribute as well as his contribution to an
ancient heritage.[39]
The ashram is free to develop its own form of worship and lifestyle adapted
from Hindu ashrams. The main activities of the ashram are meditation, study,
classes on yoga and spirituality, corporate prayer three times a day, and work
in the garden. The ashram also observes major Christian and Hindu
festivals. Involvement in social services, education and evangelism is
limited. The unique feature of ashram is adaptation of Hindu forms of worship.[40]
A Christian ashram with its emphasis on simplicity, devotion, contemplation,
service, and community life will not only enrich one's spiritual life, but also
will provide a strong foundation for Christian witness among the Hindus.
If Hindu spiritual methods such as silence, contemplation, chanting, bhajan,
and Scripture reading are followed in Christian ashrams in addition to
promoting Christian values such as service, fellowship, and witness, then
Hindus will be attracted to know and experience this God.
Amalorpavadass, an Indian Catholic theologian, observed that a
Christian ashram is "one of the best means for promoting authentic and
meaningful spiritual life which is fully Indian and fully Christian. The
Christian ashram can provide Hindus with the deepest spiritual experience of
God's love revealed in Jesus Christ. It can also provide an opportunity
for them to know Jesus who lived a simple life and identified Himself with the
common people. Hindus will be greatly attracted toward the Christ of an
ashram than a church.[41]
CONCLUSION
Christianity is often criticized as alien
religion and natives dislike Christians, and assume they are not patriotic. It
is because of the way and customs they follow in worship and living by adopting
western culture. But from the very beginning Christians had taken efforts to indigenize
Christianity and it was ruined by the missionaries and by the native Christians.
They did not encourage those practices because they dependent on missionaries.
The contemporary church believers hold their membership, for economic growth
and are after evangelists and preachers for spiritual growth. In some churches
the reasons vary, such as, a place for cemetery, following the traditions, for
voting, for position and for power. There are various independent movements
evolving in our day and it will not be encouraged, but will be suppressed by
the existing traditional churches, and the old traditions which they are
following. The contemporary mission strategy should be independent or Ashrama
movements which could be easily acknowledged by native citizens.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Baago, Kaj. Pioneers of Indigenous Christianity. Mysore: The Wesley press,
1969.
Boyd,
Robin. An introduction to Indian
Christian Theology. New Delhi: ISPCK, 1969.
Koshy, T.E. Brother Bakht Singh of India. Secundrabad: om books, 2003.
Rajasekaran, V.C. Reflections
on Indian Christian Theology. Madras: CLS, 1993.
Rosem, Lal. Brother Bakt Singh. New Delhi: ISPCK, 2002.
WEBLIOGRAPHY
Hivner,
Jr. Richard Leroy. Exploring the Depths
of the Mystery of Christ: The Life
and Work of K. Subba Rao of
Andhra Pradesh, South India, with
Special Reference to His Songs. (16
Nov 2013).
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulney_Andy
(7 Nov 2013).
http://nadarhistoricalcentre.blogspot.in/2013/07/ansattampillai-nadar- mookupeeri.html#.Unu5c3BQHAI ( 7
Nov 2013).
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A._N._Sattampillai
( 8 Nov 2013).
http://nadarsangam.com/forum/viewtopic.php?t=281&sid=aa9226e422006b85e1cb611e66e acf5b( 8 Nov 2013).
[1] Lal Rosem, Brother
Bakt Singh( New Delhi: ISPCK, 2002),23-26.
[2] Ibid, 28-58.
[3] Ibid., 180.
[4] Ibid.
[5] Ibid.,185-205
[6] Ibid.
[7] T.E.
Koshy, Brother Bakht Singh of India (Secundrabad:
OM books, 2003), 436.
[8] Lal Rosem, op.cit., 185-205.
[9] Ibid.
[10] Ibid.
[11]Ibid., 205-211.
[12] T.E.Koshy, op.cit., 447-448.
[13] Ibid.
[14] Richard Leroy
Hivner, Jr. Exploring the Depths of the
Mystery of Christ: The Life and Work of K. Subba Rao of Andhra Pradesh, South
India, with Special Reference to His Songs.
(16 Nov 2013).
[15] Robin Boyd, An Introduction to
Indian Christian Theology ( New Delhi: 2006), 273.
[16] Richard Leroy
Hivner, Jr. Exploring the Depths of the
Mystery of Christ: The Life and Work of K. Subba Rao of Andhra Pradesh, South
India, with Special Reference to His Songs.
(16 Nov 2013).
[17] Richard Leroy
Hivner, Jr. Exploring the Depths of the
Mystery of Christ: The Life and Work of K. Subba Rao of Andhra Pradesh, South
India, with Special Reference to His Songs.
(16 Nov 2013).
[18]
Kaj Baago, Pioneers of Indigenous Christianity (Mysore: The Wesley press,1969),
11.
[20]
Kaj Baago, Pioneers of Indigenous Christianity (Mysore: The Wesley press,1969),
11.
[23] http://nadarsangam.com/forum/viewtopic.php?t=281&sid=aa9226e422006b85e1cb611e66eacf5b
(
8 Nov 2013).
[24] Kaj Baago., op.cit, 8.
[25] Ibid.
[26] Ibid.
[27] Kaj Baago, op.cit., 2
[28] Ibid., 4
[29] Ibid.
[30] Ibid.
[31] Ibid., 5
[32] Ibid.
[33] Ibid., 6.
[34] Ibid.
[35] V.C.Rajasekaran, Reflections
onIndian Christian theology (Madras: CLS, 1993), 149.
[36] Ibid., 150.
[37] Ibid., 151.
[38] Ibid., 152.
[39] Ibid., 153.
[40]
B.R.Solomon, “Ashram’s articles”, http://ourkabooks.blogspot.in/
(30 Nov 2013).
[41]
B.R.Solomon, “Ashram’s articles”, http://ourkabooks.blogspot.in/
(30 Nov 2013).
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